A number of cooking techniques from raw foods. Distinguish cold and thermal (thermal) culinary processing. In the process of culinary processing, there is an improvement in the taste properties, food value of products, as well as ensuring the harmlessness of food. Therefore, compliance with the rules during cold and heat treatment, the maintenance of temperature and processing time has great hygienic. value.

Primary processing of meat and meat products.Ice cream meat should be cleaned at room temperature. Thawing meat in warm and hot water, in the slab or heating devices leads to a loss of nutrient and extractive juice, deterioration of taste. From chilled or frosthed meat, cut off the contaminated places, then rinse thoroughly in running water and dry on the grille. Then separated meat from the bones, the tendon is removed, etc. The meat is cut into pieces of different sizes or stuffing. Cutting meat, preparation of semi-finished products should be made for specials. Boards .. Ice cream bird is also thawed in air, at normal temperature. In the unproved bird, they remove the insides, wrap their heads, paws, it is cut, then it is thoroughly washed in flowing water, dry. The contents and mucous membrane remove from the stomach, the gallbladder is removed from the liver; Shecks, paws are evaporated, remove the skin from them. Sube products (liver, kidneys, heart, etc.) require particularly thorough treatment due to their smaller storage resistance. Frozen sub-products are taped at room temperature, then purified from blood residues, mucus. The liver is freed from films, gallbladder. The kidneys after removal of the films are washed several times in cold water to remove specific. smell. Solonin is soaked in cold water, changing water several times.

Ice cream Fish in front of the cut should be hurried, fish sturgeon and fillets of any fish - at normal temperature, the rest of the fish - in cold water until completely defrosting. It is recommended to add a cook salt to reduce the loss of mineral, substances. It is impossible to store frostable fish. When cutting hands, tables, knives are contaminated with scales, mucus, so before further processing Fish (cutting into pieces, roller, etc.) should be flushed out, and when cutting with clean kitchen inventors.

With primary processing of vegetables Maximum preservation of their vitamin value should be ensured. After careful washing and cleaning, the vegetables do not need to be kept for a long time in water, they are immediately subject to thermal. Processing. Potatoes during cleaning are free from the eyes and greenhouses to avoid substances (Solanin), capable of causing food poisoning. In case of damage to cabbage, it should be 20-30 minutes. Immerse B. salted water (25 g of salts per 1 liter of water). It does not need to wash the sauer cauldrons, since most of the vitamins and mineral, salts are lost. Parsley, dill, other greens, green onions, sorrel, spinach, salad after bulkhead poured for 30 minutes. cold water To remove land. Especially carefully you should wash vegetables, fruits and berries that are not subjected to thermal. Processing. Dried vegetables They move, washed, poured with cold water for 1-2 hours, then boiled in the same water. Dried fruits are moved and washed 2-3 times with warm water.

With heat treatment, the taste quality of food is improved, its digestibility increases, relieves digestion. At high temperatures, the eggs of worms, causative agents of intestinal infections and food poisoning. Microbial disputes conventional conditions Thermal processing retains viability. The most hopping-M-1 are such methods of thermal processing as cooking, quenching. The lengthening of thermal treatment time leads to a deterioration in the taste properties of food, the destruction of food and biologically active substances, vitamins.

The heat treatment time of meat depends on its type, varieties and magnitude of pieces. Meat is subjected to various culinary processing - cooking, frying, extinguishing. When cooking, juice consisting of water, extractive substances, mineral, salts is distinguished. All these substances are moving into the solution and form broth. To get a strong broth, the meat is lowered into cold water, gradually bring to a boil and support weak boiling to the end of the cooking. To obtain juicy and soft boiled meats, it is lowered into boiling water and boiled on a weak heat less than a long time. In boiling water, meat proteins are coagulated and remain in meat, it turns out tender and juicy, more valuable in food, and the broth is less saturated. Cooking for a couple leads to less loss of extractive, mineral, and other foodstuffs. The readiness of the fried, stew, boiled meat is determined by piercing it with a fork - it should be highlighted light juice.

Meat and fish minced meat, cutlets are often contaminated with microorganisms. Therefore, products from meat and fish minceda, as well as fish, sides should fry on both sides in boiling fat at least 10 minutes. Fried fish products quickly lose juiciness, taste properties, so they should be prepared before use and store no more than 30 minutes. In the manufacture of a jelly, the products are boiled up to complete readiness (approx. 3-5 hours), after disassembling and grinding, the meat is poured with broth, boil again, poured into clean, pre-covered with boiling water forms and after cooling is cooled.

In vegetables and fruits with thermal. The processing is possible losses of food and biologically active substances. To prevent the destruction of vitamin C should be observed the following rules: Vegetables are laying in boiling water, minimally reduce cooking time, not allowing digestion of vegetables. Do not be overly crushed vegetables and fruits, and you need to cook them in minimum quantity Water, in enameled dishes with a closed lid. Cooking vegetable dishes should be taken before use, avoiding reheating. Most (up to 95%) vitamin C is lost when carrying vegetables, puree preparation, casserole. Frozen vegetables, not deficiting, lowered boiling water and boil until readiness.

Nutritional supplements

Nutritional supplements - These are natural and synthetic chemical compounds that do not represent the source of energy, as food, are not used in its pure form, but only added to products to facilitate the technological process, extending the storage period or imparting a certain consistency to the final product.

Recently, in the media and in popular science publications, the term "food additives" is often used to designate vegetable mixes, Herbs, as well as for biologically active substances.

Anyone, one way or another, consumes nutritional supplements with food. Preservatives, artificial dyes, emulsifiers and other non-splashing substances are added to the improvement of the commodity type of products, to increase their storage time and increase market value. Most additives do not have food value And at best, they are biologically inert for the body, and at worst - turn out to be biologically active and affordable for the body. Some types of additives can cause allergies.

With the right, scientifically based use of food additives, subject to all existing standards (including CDC), timing and conditions for storing products, the use of undisturbed (undeformed) containers, nutritional supplements should be considered to discharge the substances of minimum risk. But only if the entire specified complex of factors is met.

In the EU countries, all nutritional supplements are collected in a single registry, which is called Codex Alimentarius. Registry compilers argue that only non-hazardous additives fall into it. Meanwhile, Russian legislation is more rigid. In the "hygienic rules of safety and food value of food products", which operate in the Russian Federation from July 1, 2002, the EU additives are divided into three categories: harmless, suspicious and prohibited.

In the European Registry, each additive received a three-digit or four-digit number and the letter "E" at the beginning. The presence of it means that the product (product) is manufactured in Europe.

The three-digit or four-digit number standing beyond the letter E indicates the code of a particular food additive. For example: E 152 - activated carbon, E 251 - sodium nitrate, etc. The presence of a dietary supplement should be reflected on the product label. The additive can appear as a separate substance or represent the functional class in combination with E.

On labels different products Often you can meet "flavors identical to natural". The complex mixture of fragrant substances - natural and synthetic is hidden for this suitivated wording. Due to the complexity of the composition of these natural and the chemical method of aromas, these flavors are not included in the classification of food additives, and the codes with "E" are not assigned to them in the title.

The use of nutritional supplements still leaves the question of their safety. In any case, they should be entered into food in minimal quantity. In Russia, the use of food additives is strictly regulated. Any nutritional supplement is checked first in the United Committee of the Experts of the International Agricultural Organization and the World Health Organization, and then at the Institute of Nailing the Russian Academy of Medical Sciences.

13. Impact on food chemicalization of agriculture. Chemical substances,widely applicable on different stages Production P. p., may be present in the final product in unchanged or sharply transformed form. Depending on what stage, chemicals fall into P. p., They can be divided into three groups. The chemicals of the first group pass all the links of the food chain, because they are entered into the soil, go to the plants, hereinafter - in the body of animals and, finally, with food products of animal origin enter the human body. This group includes nitrogen, phosphoric, potash mineral fertilizers; composite parts of anti-erosium means for soil, such as phenols; in residual amounts Heavy metals, nitrates, sulfates, organic compounds available in wastewater used as fertilizer; Toxic metals (for example, cadmium), which are included in the mineral fertilizer. The chemicals of the second group will minimize the initial link (soil) and enter the feed as a result of plant treatment with growth stimulants, such as chloroolinchloride, by pesticides: with feeds in the body of S.-H. Animals are chemical preservatives used to preserve feed, and residual amounts of oil hydrocarbons used for growing protein feed components. The third group includes chemicals used in the cultivation of animals and birds and administered to them orally or parenterally. These include hormonal and other animal growth stimulants, drugs.

Making an excessive amount of mineral fertilizers to the soil influences P. p., Since, firstly, it often leads to an adverse change in the content of foodstuffs and, secondly, to the accumulation of compounds in products that have toxic effects on the human body.

Food packaging provides protection against contamination, damage, makes it possible to eliminate losses, facilitates transportation, storage and implementation. Packaging provides for preventing the possible direct influence of the container on P. P. and indirectly harmful effects on the health of the consumer.

The main thing in the preparation of food is to maintain the nutrient and biologically active substances in the original products. To do this, we need to master rational methods of culinary processing of products. After all, all food products require preliminary or so-called cold processing - sorting, cleaning, kneading, soaking, separation of inedible parts and final thermal - cooking, roasting, extinguishing, baking and other methods of preparation.

The first condition for cooking is strict, strict observance of sanitation and hygiene rules. The hostess itself should always be neat, clean, neat. It follows more often to wash your hands, dishes, boards, tool, keep cleaning the kitchen room clean.

Food products need to be carefully soaked

Potatoes and roots - best brushed. Sheet greens - salad, sorrel - you first need to go through, remove damaged, and then rinse in a large amount of water.

It is very important to learn how to use food rationally, as well as nutritional waste.

With culinary processing, it is necessary to strive for the losses of nutrient and biologically active substances are minimal. If vegetables, for example, omit in boiling water, the losses of vitamins and nutrients decrease by 3-5 times.

Ice cream meat when thawing a large piece loses juice less than sliced.

Thermal processing of products

As a result of thermal treatment, new flavoring and aromatic substances are formed in products, their digestibility increases. In addition, food is neutralized, microorganisms are dying and harmful substances are destroyed in some products, such as toxin in curls or solarin in potatoes.

Cooking is the most reliable and common method of thermal processing of products. The product temperature of the product reaches 100 ° C.

The products are boiled in a liquid, pair or allowed, i.e., cook in its own juice or with the addition of a small amount of fluid. To obtain a concentrated broth, saturated with nutritional and taste, meat, bones, you need to fill with cold water, bring to a boil on a strong heat and then boil on low heat when quiet boiling.

If you need to get juicy meat, it is recommended to omit it in boiling salted water, quickly bring to a boil and cook also with a quiet boil until ready.

One of the most important requirements of thermal treatment is: it should not be longer than it is necessary, because with long-term cooking products almost completely lose biologically active substances, the value of food is significantly reduced, its taste and flavor deteriorate.

Frying products

With frying, the product is heated without adding a liquid with fat, which protects the product from burning, provides uniform heating, improves the taste of dishes and increases its calorie content.

The main method is the root of the product in a small (5-10% by weight of the product) the number of fat. This method is most appropriate in home kitchen. In this case, they laid out a strongly heated frying pan and heated so that he began to smightly smoke. In hot fat, slices of meat are lowered and roasted it from two sides. Do not forget that each slice of meat must certainly lower in well-heated fat, then the meat will be roasted, juicy and tasty.

If the meat is frying under the lid, it will not be wrapped.

You can fry the product in the fryer, that is, in a large number of fat, when the roasted product is completely immersed in fat. In this way, the brushwood, pies, potato chips are prepared. Meat, roasted in deep fryer, is also very tasty.

But the advice: the slices' twirmed on both sides lay out on paper so that excess fat absorbed into it.

Grilling products. Cooking on grill

Grilling literally means burning. This is one of the methods of thermal processing of meat or fish on a spit - a skewer or grid - without using fat. The most acceptable is the method of processing for meat of young, especially lamb and pork.

The meat can be frying over hot coals, in a hot oven or in electricrile. Through infrared rays that emit hot corners or a hot spiral, meat or fish warming up 2-2.5 times faster than with frying in a frying pan.

On the surface of the product, be it meat or fish, a thin crust is formed during the grill, the pores are sached, they are swamped under the action of heat, so that the juice does not flow. That is why the product is prepared in this way, it turns out juicy, tasty and low-fat.

By the way, this method of physicians consider the most promising, since, among other advantages, the finished product is less hot.

For roasting in the oven, usually choose big pieces Meat (approximately 1-3.5 kg). Bird is frying entirely. Non-fat meat, before placing it in the oven, lubricate with preheated butter, sour cream or vegetable oil, and fat - splashes with water.

Lean meat first roasted in a pan before education ruddy crust And only after that placed in the oven at a temperature of 130-150 ° C.

Fatty meat (housing, rattling, pork) is placed in the oven heated to 230-240 ° C, and withstand before being shred, after which the temperature is recommended to reduce.

The duration of roasting depends on the thickness of the piece and its size. The availability of the product is determined using a needle or needles: if the meat is not reasonable, a pinkish juice will be distilled from it.

Meat, fish, bird can be baked in foil. It is best to bake meat and birds shaped on portions that could be fully wrapped in foil.

Meat or fish you need to sprinkle with salt, add spices and seasonings to taste, and then wrap so that the released juice does not flow, and bake at a temperature of 170-180 ° C of about 20-30 minutes until readiness.

If boiled, fried or in any other way cooked meat, fish or mushrooms bake, then you will get a dish with a completely special taste.

So, in a refractory form or on the pan, you need to lay out pieces of the product, twisted it with spices and seasonings, pour the sauce or wrap the dough layer (yeast or puff) and bake in a hot oven before the formation of a golden crust.

Extinguishing products

Products that are insufficiently softened when frying, for example, game, old bird, kidney, heart, as a rule, extinguish.

The extinguishing is a combined method of thermal processing: first the product is roasted, and then boiled in a gooseman or any other deep dishes, adding seasonings and sauce.

In the pan, in which you roasted meat, you need to pour some water or broth, bother 2-3 minutes. Pour the product with the resulting juice, adding paesserved roots, tomato-paste, spices and stew under the lid on a weak heat or in the oven until readiness.

You can extinguish the product on the plate or in the oven, using the fat broth - Bureza instead of water. This method is called B R E E R O V A N E M.

Primary product processing tasks are:

1) thawing ice cream products;

2) the release of products from pollution and inedible parts;

3) removal from products of parts having reduced food value;

4) giving the product size, shape and state corresponding to the type of culinary product, for the manufacture of which the product is intended;

5) The use of impacts ensuring the acceleration of subsequent heat treatment of the product.

Pull the ice cream products of animal origin - meat, offal, bird, fish.

To exemplate with pollution, most animal and plant foods entering primary processing are washed. When washing, visible contaminants are not only removed, but also significantly reduced bacterial dissemination of products. To achieve more efficient disinfection, the washing of the product is repeated at different stages of its primary processing.

Vegetable products are released from inedible parts by bulkhead, sifting, cleaning and stripping. When the bulkhead of vegetables, mushrooms, croup and legumes are manually removed by foreign impurities, damaged, not suitable in food, etc., the sifting is distinguished by various impurities from bulk products - flour, croup. When cleaning with vegetables, remove the skin. The stripping consists of cutting spoiled and other parts of the product that are not suitable in food.

To receptions, with which animal products are exempt from inedible parts, belong:

1) Talking the removal of feathers from a bird carcass;

2) Outline - burning small hairs on the surface of car carcasses, heads and legs of large and small livestock;

3) groaning - removal of the internals of bird carcasses and fish;

4) stripping - cutting films, tendons, stamp cutting when processing meat;

5) soaking the saltin, salty fish.

Examples of removal methods from products with reduced foodstopes, can be:

1) the roller - the allocation of bones from the carcass of large and small livestock;

2) Cleaning scales from fish;

3) Removing fillet from fish; This removes the spine with head and tail.

To perform the fourth primary processing task, apply the following techniques:

1) cutting the product into pieces of various sizes and shapes;

2) chopping pieces of meat to align their surface smoothing thickness and imparting it to the appropriate form;

3) grinding into the native structureless mass of meat of slaughter animals, birds and fish;

4) mixing crushed meat with water, bread and seasonings to obtain a cutlet mass, mixing flour with various products to obtain a test;

5) molding products from the cutlet mass, test;

6) panning, i.e. coating the surface of the products (mainly from meat, poultry and fish) flour and ground crops:

7) stuffing. Such methods of primary processing, like soaking of legumes (pea, beans, lentils), grinding cattle bones, as well as small cattle, chopping portioning pieces of meat for breaking the connective tissue, alignment of thickness with pieces of pipes., Provide acceleration, subsequent thermal processing Product.

Heat treatment

Most foods are unacceptable for consumption in raw. Therefore, they have to be subject to thermal processing. As a result, they acquire a pleasant taste and smell, their appearance improves. Many products after thermal processing become softer. Thermal processing increases the digestibility of plant foods.

Thermal processing, in addition, neutralizes the products, since microorganisms that are on them die under action high temperatures. It should be noted, however, it should be noted that in normal terms and temperature mode of thermal treatment, complete neutralization is achieved only if the products are completely benign and is not very excluded by bacteria. Therefore, at all stages of primary processing, it is necessary to strictly observe sanitary and hygienic requirements in order to the amount of thermal processing the product is minimal.

All thermal processing techniques used in culinary practice, You can minimize two main - cooking and frying.

When cooking, products are heated in water, broth, milk or in a saturated water vapor atmosphere. The temperature of the liquid and the product during cooking in conventional cooking foods and pile dishes does not exceed 100 °.

In hermetically closed cooking devices, autoclaves, cooking products can also be at a temperature of 120-130 °. The use of high temperatures strongly speeds up the cooking process.

The ratio between the amount of product and the amount of liquid during cooking is different. Cooking with a small amount of fluid when the liquid does not cover the product completely, called the allowance. The allowance of the product with spices and seasonings is called handling.

Stew and allowed products in closed dishes.

When cooking the ferry, the product is placed in mesh metal baskets or boxes in a digestive boiler with water so that the water does not come into contact with the product. The boiler is closed with a lid and boil water in it; The formed pairs helps the product. For cooking steam, special pairing cabinets are also used, which pairs are supplied through the pipes from the boiler room or it turns out in the cabinet itself in a special, evaporative box.

With frying, products are heated without adding liquid (water, broth, milk), but with a large or smaller amount of fat.

Under the action of high moisture temperature from the surface of the product, evaporates quickly, -In the result that dry crust appears on it. Increasing the temperature of the crust is above 100 °, about 130 °, causes the decomposition of the organic substances that are part of its organic substances. The chemical compounds formed at the same time have a pleasant taste and smell. With a further increase in the temperature of the crust, chemical compounds with taste and smell are formed.

In culinary practice, several types of frying are used, different from another way of transmitting heat roasted product.

1. Frying with a small amount of fat: a) on an open surface, b) in the roasting

2. Frying in large quantities of fat (fryer).

3. Frying under the action of radiant heat.

With all the methods of frying, the fat should not be heated above 180 ° in order to avoid its decomposition, accompanied by the formation of gaseous products with an unpleasant chady odor.

The temperature at which the fat begins to decompose depends not only on its type, but also on other factors, in particular on the size of the frying pan. When heated in a frying pan with a diameter of 10 cm cow oil begins to decompose (challenge) at 208 °, lard - at 221 °, cotton oil - at 233 °, hydrogozhir - at 230 °, a biskor - at 210 °.

Frying with a small amount of fat. The product is heated on the stove in an open shallow dishes - a frying pan, contradictory. The bottom of the dishes are laid (5-10% of the weight of the product) and, after it is warm up to a temperature of 150-160 °, a roasted product is placed. Fat forms a thin layer between the bottom of the dishes and the product and due to bad thermal conductivity slows down the increase in product temperature. Therefore, before the product begins to burn, a normal crust is formed on it, which directly contacts the bottom of the dishes. To form a crust over the entire surface, the product must be turned over.

In the roast cabinet, the product is roasted immediately from all sides. The surface of it that does not touch with the bottom of the dishes is roasted due to heat, which is radiated by the heated walls of the cabinet and is delivered by convection currents of air. This technique is when it is used for products from flour and vegetable products, is called baked or baking.

Frying in large quantities. In this case, the method of frying the product is completely immersed in fat, heated to 160-180 °. Hot fat, enveloping product, creates good heat transfer conditions and ensures uniform formation of a crust on the entire surface of the product.

The ratio between the weights of fat and the product immersed in it should be at least 4: 1, otherwise fat is cooled, which significantly impairs the conditions for frying.

For frying in a large number of fat, pocket dishes or special devices with fire or electric heating (fryers) are used. The dishes should be an unclear (steel or cast-iron), since it is spoiled from the high temperature of the middle.

Filling the dishes with fat follows more than half, since when bookmarking products, hot fat is strongly foaming due to the rapid evaporation of the water.

Products are immersed in fat directly or in a mesh basket. In the first case, roasted foods are removed: noise and for the flow of excess fat are laid on a metal sieve.

After 4-5 increscent fat filtered, otherwise it acquires a dark color and a bitter taste due to the decomposition of the high temperature of the particles that have fallen into fat from products. The filtered fat can be used for further frying.

Sometimes roasted products are immersed in fat half or one-third.

Frying under the action of radiant warmth. With frying under the action of radiant heat, the products are put on the grille or put on a spit (metal rod, skewer) and placed over burning wood coals - birch, olhov or oak. To regulate heating, the distance between the product and coals is changed.

The grid is first heated to 200 °, then wipe, lubricate the product with spies and put a roasted product on it.

The source of radiant heat can serve as electrospirals, which are mounted in the upper part of special cabinets - electric hand.

Processes occurring during thermal processing of products

Meat and fish. Thermal processing of meat and fish causes a decrease in their weight, called welding or horror. Meat welding reaches 40%, horror - 37%. Fish welding and horror constitute 18-20%.

The weight of meat and fish with thermal treatment decreases as a result of water loss and soluble substances. The bulk of water in raw meat And the fish is held by squirrels located in a highly swollen state. When heated, the swollen proteins are coagulated and isolated (processed) part of water with extractive substances dissolved in it, salts and proteins.

Proteins are coincided gradually, as the product warms. The higher the final temperature, the more dense the proteins are coincided and the more meat and the fish lose water and soluble substances.

Losses of soluble substances during cooking more than with frying. Usually, this is explained by the fact that the crust formed on the product (meat, fish) prevents the release of juice from it.

This explanation is incorrectly, since the crust formed on the product cannot be delayed.

The true cause of the difference between the amounts of soluble substances that are distinguished from meat and fish during cooking and frying is as follows.

In the process of cooking, water released by meat and fish enters the environment in a liquid state, carrying out from the product dissolved in it. During the frying, only a small part of the water is highlighted in a liquid state, the main mass is evaporated, therefore substances dissolved in it remain in the product.

In addition to soluble substances released with water, pieces of meat and fish lose fat, melting from high temperature.

The amount of substances (not counting fat) extracted from meat during cooking, ranges from 1.5-3% of the weight of meat, depending on the type and variety, as well as the method of cooking and the magnitude of the pieces of meat. On average, it is 2; 2%, of which 0.1% accounted for the share of soluble proteins forming the foam.

There are two ways of cooking meat. One is used to obtain broth, the other - for the preparation of second dishes. In the first case, the water in which the meat is boiled is continuously maintained in a state of boiling. In the second case, as soon as the water after immersion in it, the meat boils, heating weakens and boil meat without a boiling at a temperature of 85-90 °.

With the second method of cooking, due to a lower temperature, meat proteins, coating, form gentle bunches, holding more moisture in themselves than at the first method. As a result, meat, welded in the second way, loses less water, consequently, soluble substances; It turns out more juicy and tasty. However, under reduced temperature, you can cook only more or less gentle meat containing not very resistant to action. hot water Claystress (see below), such as calf. From the beef mascara for cooking at low temperatures only the upper and inner parts of the back legs are suitable.

Regardless of the hot or cold water, the meat for cooking is immersed, the amount of substances extracted from meat does not change significantly.

Fish of various breeds during a start-up portion slices Loses soluble substances on average about 1.5% of their weight.

Along with a decrease in weight during heat treatment, meat and fish consistency changes. Raw products with a proof needle have noticeable resistance. In products communicated with heat treatment until readiness, the needle enters freely. Finished products are easy to cut and chew.

The change in the consistency is the result of the transformation into the adhesive of the adhesive substance, which is part of the connective tissue fibers of meat and fish. A formed adhesive soluble in hot water and together with other substances partially goes into broth.

The conversion of the adhesive substance in glue begins when the product temperature reaches 60 °. With increasing temperature, the process is noticeably accelerated. At temperatures above 100 ° glue is formed especially quickly. This is based on the use of autoclaves to accelerate the cooking meat. Under normal conditions, pieces of beef meat weighing about 2 kg 2-2.5 hours are boiled, in the autoclave at a pressure of 1 atm (temperature 119 °) of the cooking continues for 30-40 minutes.

The conversion of the adhesive substance into glue can be accelerated by the addition of acid. In culinary practice, this is used, for example, in the manufacture of dishes from wild animal meat, withsting it in front of hot in acetic marinade.

The gold clading substance passes into the glue is lighter than the clabous meat stick, so the heat treatment of the fish requires significantly less time. The fact that beef is boiled longer than meat of small cattle, poultry and game, is explained by the greater resistance of beef cunting substance.

The difference in the properties of the clading substance is the reason that the meat of old animals is brewing significantly longer than meat Young.

Parts of the same beef carcass due to the different stability of the clading substances contained in them have various culinary properties; It is recommended to apply K. different parts Disintegrating heat treatment techniques.

For frying, you can use only tenderloin, spinal and lumbar parts, as they have the ability to quickly turn into glue when heated without adding water.

You can also fry the upper and inner parts of the back leg from the carcass notably below the average fatness. Before frying, these parts must be cut into portion slices that need to be repeatedly republished to break the connective tissue.

Other parts of the carcass can not be fried, because the clading substance goes into the glue so slowly that when heated without adding water, they dry earlier than the adhesive to form. Therefore, all parts of the beef carcasses, besides the above, you can only stew or cook.

In various parts of a small cattle, there are no such sharp differences in the properties of the clading substance, as in the beef of the car. Almost any part of ram, pork and calf carcasses can be used for frying.

Thermal processing causes change in meat coloring. Although the slaughter of animals is accompanied by the telescope, they still have a small amount of blood. However, it is not the cause of the characteristic red painting of meat. In muscle tissue there is the same coloring substance as in the blood. At a temperature of 70-75 ° it is destroyed, with the result that the meat acquires gray.

Meat bones and fish waste. The bones obtained in the processing of meat carcasses, as well as heads, tails, fins and bones obtained by cutting fish, are used to cook broths.

Raw beef bones contain an average of 50% water, 12% of nitrogenous substances, 15% fat, 22% mineral substances and 1% of other substances.

Fish waste compared to meat bones more water, less fat minerals.

During cooking from bones and fish waste, the broth turns mainly glue formed from a nitrogen clading substance, and fat that melted from high temperature. Bone mineral substances are almost insoluble in water, so during cooking they stand out in an insignificant amount.

The composition of meat and fish broths obtained from cooking meat, bones and fish waste depends on the ratio between the amounts of water and the product taken for cooking and the degree of boiling. Below is the content of dry substances in 1 liters of degrees, by careful removal of fat from the surface, meat, bone fish broths obtained from 1 kg of the corresponding product.

From the table, it can be seen that the meat broth in composition is sharply different from bone and fishery broth. The latter, on the contrary, are very close to each other. AT meat broth The bulk of the dry residue is extractive substances, in bone broth and in broth of fish waste - glue.

Meat broth due to the presence of extractive substances in it has a specific meat flavor and smell; This broth is a strong sludge

exciting digestive organs.

Bouillons bone and fish waste as a slogon means are of a slight value. Glue gives them that distinguishes them from vegetable broths.

Vegetable products. In the raw form, most vegetables, croup and legumes are distinguished by significant rigidity, which is caused by two reasons:

1) the solid compound of the cells from which the plant tissue forming these products consists;

2) the rigidity of cell walls. In the process of cooking, hot water partially translates into a soluble substance bonding individual cells, as well as some of the substances included in the cell walls. As a result, the relationships between the cells are weakened and cell walls are bred. Therefore, during cooking, vegetables, cereals and legumes lose the rigidity peculiar to them in the raw form and soften.

Radial speed plant products Depends on the resistance to the action of hot water of the substance bonding the gluing point of plant tissue. This resistance depends on the nature of various products. For example, potatoes are boiled for 25-30 minutes, millet is 40 minutes, the beans are 1-1.5 hours.

Even between different varieties of the same product in this respect, a very big difference is observed. Especially often it is celebrated in pea. So, some grades of pea are boiled in 45 minutes, others - in 1.5 hours, the third - in 2-2.5 hours.

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1. Thermal Food Processing Methods

The heating . Thermal processing of products is the main method of the technological process of production of culinary products. The heating of the product using different media transmitting heat causes changes in its structural-mechanical, physicochemical and organoleptic properties, which, in the aggregate, determine the readiness, consistency, color, smell and taste of the product.

Thermal processing of products is carried out in various ways: immersion in a liquid medium, processing steam-air and steerly mixtures, sharp ferry, heating in the microwave current field, infrared irradiation, contact heating.

All methods for heating food products can be divided into two groups: surface and volumetric heating. The most common surface heating

Surface heating . In this case, the surface of the product is heated at contact with water, ferry, heated fat, air or infrared beams.

From the heated surface, the heat is transmitted due to the thermal conductivity of the deep product, and its entire mass is gradually warming up. This type of heating can be contact or radiation. In case of contact heating, the product is placed on heated surfaces or in the heating medium (water, steam, fat, heated air).

In this case, the product is heated only on one side and in the process of processing it must be turned over. When radiation heating, the product is irradiated with a stream infrared Rays (ILC)And it warms up at the same time from all sides.

Source Il There may be heated surfaces (walls of frying cabinets, electric heating elements, etc.) or special lamps (tubular or conical with a mirror surface).

Il penetrate the product to a depth of 1--2 mm, and in this fine layer their energy turns into thermal. Therefore, the surface of the product is very quickly heated and the dehydrated crust is formed, in which the temperature quickly reaches 130--150 ° C.

This method of heating is used in the grill apparatus and skewers. In practice, several heating methods are often used simultaneously.

For example, if the product is not completely immersed in the liquid, then its lower part is heated by water, and the upper ferry. With all the methods of surface heating, the temperature difference (temperature gradient) is created between the surface and the internal parts of the product. The temperature difference causes moisture movement from the surface to the center of the product (thermal diffusion).

This phenomenon is called T yermomassoperenos. or thermal radiation. It contributes to the rapid formation on the surface of the crust and decrease in the evaporation of moisture during frying, as well as to reduce the intensity of diffusion processes during cooking.

Volumetric heating . With volumetric heating, the energy of electromagnetic oscillations or electric current turns into thermal energy in the product itself and almost the whole mass is heated almost simultaneously. Culinary caramelization semi-finished products

There are two methods of volumetric heating: electrocontact and ultrahigh-frequency (microwave heating). With an electrocontact method, an electric current is passed through the product. In accordance with the Law of Joule - Lenz during current passing through the conductor, heat is highlighted. However, in this case, electrolysis (decomposition) of the electrolytes contained in its liquid phase (salt, acid, etc.) occurs in the product.

Therefore, this method is used quite rarely. When microwave heating, the product is placed in an alternating electromagnetic field. All products contain dipole molecules, or particles in which the existing electrical charges are spatially separated.

For example, in the water molecule, one end is charged positively (hydrogen ion), and the other is negative (hydroxyl ion). In addition, even neutral molecules in the electromagnetic field can become dipoles.

This is explained by the fact that symmetrically arranged charges can be shifted under the action of external fields - secondary polarization. If the dipole particle is placed in an electromagnetic field, then it will turn it in such a way as to accommodate along the power lines.

If the direction of these lines to change, then the particle will change its orientation. In an alternating electromagnetic field, the direction of magnetic power lines varies several thousand times per second, so dipoles begin to fluctuate, the kinetic energy of the movement of molecules is distinguished, and the product is quickly heated.

The penetration depth of electromagnetic oscillations into the product depends on their frequency and product properties (its dielectric characteristics).

When using microwave heating, the heat treatment time is reduced, the consumption of electricity is reduced, the loss of mass and soluble substances decreases, the proteins are less denatured and unsaturated fatty acids are oxidized.

The changes occurring in this case with food substances, their influence on the human body is not yet sufficiently studied. The microwave heating is recommended to be used mainly for heating cooled and frozen dishes, for thawing frozen products.

With volumetric heating, the temperature difference inside the product does not occur, therefore, it does not happen thermomasseen and therefore the crust is not formed, the microwave heating can be compared with cooking in its own juice - the allowance.

Cooling- The return of heat into the environment. Products can be cooled in natural and artificial conditions.

So, to preserve the quality of products (first of all perishable) enrolled in enterprises cateringA reduced storage temperature is required, in which the development of microorganisms is suppressed and unwanted biochemical processes flowing in the products themselves.

Cooling is also used to create modes necessary for carrying out technological processes: studdowing, rolling of puff pastry, whipping foam, etc.

In addition, cooling is used with centralized production of culinary products (chilled dishes) in order to extend its implementation.

The meaning of thermal treatment . Thermal processing of products, as a rule, is the final stage of preparation of culinary products.

In some cases, thermal treatment is preceded by mechanical processing (cutting, cleaning, wiping, etc.) or plays an auxiliary role when primary processing Raw materials and products (spanning of vegetables to protect them from darkening, or sturgeon fish in order to facilitate their processing, etc.).

In the process of thermal processing, the digestibility of culinary products increases, makes it delicious and fragrant, disinfection occurs.

Digestibility of products past thermal processingIt is determined by a decrease in its mechanical strength, while the products are softened, it is easier to be chewed and smeared with digestive juices, the digestibility of food increases.

Reducing the mechanical strength of animal products is caused mainly by changing proteins when heated - they are denatured and in this form are easier to digends. Starch turns into a hubber and is easier to digest.

New are formed taste and aromatic substances, exciting appetite, and therefore, increasing the digestibility of food. The activity of antifiments contained in some raw foods is lost.

When the products of microorganisms are heated, forming disputes, go into inactive condition and are not able to multiply.

Most bacteria that do not form disputes die. Bacterial toxins are destroyed. Poisonous substances contained in some raw products (mushrooms, eggplants, color beans) are destroyed or transferred to decoction.

Thermal processing has its drawbacks. Thus, long and excessive heating of fats causes a number of unwanted changes in them (oxidation, polymerization, hydrolysis and deep decay).

There is a loss of particles of soluble and volatile aromatic, as well as flavors, changing natural coloring products, destruction vitamins and other biologically active substances.

The correct organization of the technological process, knowledge of the reasons worsening the quality of the products, and the skillful use of rational culinary techniques will allow to minimize the loss of nutrients and prepare high quality culinary products.

2. Technological characteristics of vegetables, fruits and mushrooms. Technological process of mechanical culinary processing of vegetables

At catering facilities for cooking dishes, side dishes, culinary products Use vegetables of different groups. They come most often in fresh and recycled. The culinary use of vegetables is determined by their technological properties: the composition and content of food substances, the characteristics of the structure of the tissues.

Thus, for culinary treatment, potato varieties are used with an average starch content of 12--16%.

Their technological properties are determined by the shape of tubers, the amount and depth of the occurrence of the eyes, the degree of darkening of the pulp of raw and boiled potatoes, the preservation of the shape with heat treatment, the consistency of boiled potatoes, as well as flavors.

The best for the production of semi-finished products is potatoes of a rounded or oval-rounded form, with a small number of eyes and a size of at least 5 cm by the smallest diameter.

Tubers with a crumpled flesh of a white or creamy color is advisable to use for maize mashed potatoes, masses, puree soup. Tubers with a dense or waterflower pulp are used for filling soups, garnings from boiled potatoes and for frying.

The best technological properties are characterized by carrot varieties with a bright orange flesh, a small core and a flat smooth surface.

Beets for culinary use it is better to take with a dark painted pulp, without brightly pronounced light rings. Pale coloring and ringingness - signs of relatively coarse consistency and unsatisfactory taste.

When preparing a booster beet with a dark color extinguished with raw, and the weakly growing first boiled in the entire skin. The culinary use of white cabbage depends on the degree of its maturity, sizes and density of kochanov.

Early cabbage is advisable to use in raw form for salads, for allowing large slices, as well as for cooking soups. From dense kochanov medium or late cabbage prepared salads, soups, cabbage stuffing, cabbage cutlet mass; From loose - cabbageans and schnitzels. Red cabbage Used mainly for salads and extinguishing.

Brussels cabbage - for cooking soups, boiling and baking.

From Kohlrabi prepared salads, it is allowed and extinguished. Cauliflowed heads are dense and loose. Best for culinary use are varieties with a dense, snow-white large head. Ruffle cauliflower heads are suitable for soups, dense - for second dishes.

The use of the onion onion depends on the sharpness of its taste. Onion of sharp varieties in a parsed form - seasoning to soups, meat and fish fried dishes; Onions of slightly ground and sweet varieties add to salads and winegraticles in fresh formAnd also passer.

Vegetables (as well as fruits) are biological systems in which the metabolic processes - breathing, hydrolytic and oxidative processes continue during storage. They consist of tissues: coating, parenchymal, conductive. The edible part of vegetables is represented mainly by a parenchymal cloth.

Paren.chemn.ala fabric it consists of thin-walled cells growing uniform in all directions. The contents of individual cells represent a semi-liquid mass - cytoplasm, into which various cellular elements are immersed: vacuoles, kernels, plasts, etc. (Fig. And.1). Between themselves, the cells of the parenchymal tissue are connected by layers of median plates that give to vegetables with mechanical strength.

The ratio and structure separate species Vegetable tissues depend on their age and determine the method of culinary use, the number of waste during machining,

Thus, waste during the purification of a young potato having a thin coating tissue is 20--25%, and when processing mature reaches 40%. Young zucchini (11--12 days) can be used entirely, not cleaning, and ripe (more than 14 days) have to remove skin, seeds and seed pulp (conductive tissue).

Properties of finished products are largely dependent on the quality of vegetables entering enterprises. The quality indicators of raw materials, which are normalized by standards, is a form, magnitude, color, the degree of maturity, the inner structure of vegetables and fruits, the presence of damage to mechanical, agricultural pests, diseases, permissible levels of "pollutants" (nitrates, pesticides, etc.).

Technological mechanical process processing vegetables . It consists of the following operations: acceptance, short-term storage, sorting, washing, cleaning, washing and cutting.

For acceptance check a lot of batch and compliance with vegetables standards requirements. For this, vegetables weighed and the results obtained are checked with the data specified in the accompanying documents. The benignness of vegetables is determined by organoleptically: in color, odor, taste and consistency. The quality and safety of finished products depend on the quality of vegetables, the amount of waste, processing method.

For the storage of the operational stock of the vegetables required for the uninterrupted operation of the enterprise, special vegetables stores are used, in which they support the necessary temperatures, humidity and provide multiplicity of air exchange. These storerooms are equipped with bins, racks, sublinks.

For sorting remove the rotten, beaten or sprouted specimens, foreign impurities, and also distribute vegetables in size, the degree of maturity and suitability to prepare certain dishes and culinary products. Sort most vegetables manually. In large enterprises for sorting, calibrations in the size of potatoes use machines.

goal washing - removal of land and other contaminants, reducing the seed with microorganisms. The car wash has not only a sanitary value, but also extends the service life of vegetable machines, facilitates waste disposal. Mocked vegetables in vegetable cars or manually.

For cleaning vegetables remove parts with low nutritional value (peel, frozen, coarse seeds, etc.) in vegetable cleaning machines or manually. Purified vegetables are rinsed, and cut.

goal slicing - giving vegetables necessary forms and sizes.

Potato treatment. Washing and calibrated potatoes are cleaned in periodic or continuous potato. Large tubers are cleaned faster, and while small tubers will be cleaned, a large layer of meakty is removed from them, so it is important to pre-strip potatoes.

Sometimes after cleaning large tubers, the car is unloaded, the purified instances are selected, and the rest are repeatedly cleaned. Work and time and daughter's time is fully compensated by the fact that the time of dying is reduced, and the amount of waste is significantly reduced.

To reduce waste, follow the rules of operation of potato: adjust the water supply, monitor the condition of the grinding surface, prevent unnecessary cleaning, not to load at the same time potatoes more than installed for these type machines. Waste decreases preliminary soaking Blind potatoes.

Nutrients in the potato club are unevenly distributed: the protein is most in the peripheral and central parts of the tuber, starch - in the zone of vascular beams under the crust, mineral substances - in the peripheral parts. Therefore, the thickness of the tuber being removed when cleaning the layer, the greater the loss of nutrients.

Waste during washing and sorting of mature potatoes are 5--6%, with mechanical cleaning - 10--20, at dying - 11-15, and everything depending on the season - 25-- 40%. Waste will quickly deteriorate, so they must be timely removed from the workshop or processed. When recycling, waste is getting starch.

Purified potatoes in the air quickly darkens. Damage causes enzymatic processes - ^ oxidation of phenolic substances (tyrosine, etc.) contained in potato cells, with the formation of dark-painted compounds called melanins. For prevention from darkening, purified potatoes are stored in water. but long storage In water leads to significant losses of nutrients. So, for 6 h storage in water with whole tubers, potatoes lose 0.72%, and sliced \u200b\u200b- up to 2.5% of all dry substances contained in it. Therefore, with centralized production of purified potatoes, more effective methods Preserving the color of his tubers.

Purified potatoes are used as integer or sliced. Not only the appearance of dishes depends on the form of cutting, but often their taste. It is explained by the fact that semi-finished products of various shapes have an unequal specific surface area, from which water loss depend on the frying and the formation of new flavoring substances in the surface crust. For example, 100 g of potatoes with whole tubers have a surface 30--50 cm 2, and a chopped straw - about 200--300 cm 2.

The form of cutting vegetables must correspond to the form of products that are part of the dish.

Processing roots. To this group of vegetables include carrots, beets, trouser, radishes and the so-called white roots - Parsley, Celery, Pasternak.

Roots are sorted by size by removing the starting instances. Young carrots and beets are cut from the top. Beet's tops are suitable for cooking and beetroot. The roots are made manually or in the washing machines, clean and washed again. Beets, turnips, jog of small and medium sizes, short carrots are cleaned in potato, and long carrot - manually.

White roots sort, then cut the greens and small roots, after which was washed and cleaned manually. Greenery go, remove damaged, yellowed, sluggish leaves and wash. Cleaning aromatic roots, thoroughly washed, used to aromatize broths.

Red radishes are cut off the tops and the thin part of the root of the root; white Redish.In addition, cleaned from the skin.

Store the purified root roots on the nasty or trays covered with a damp cloth.

For the preparation of dishes, the roots are cut into pieces of different shapes. In tab. P.2 and in fig. Clause 2 shows the most common forms of cutting root crops.

Hrena processing. The horseradish is cleaned of the skin and washed. If the root lied slightly, it is pre-soaked in water.

Processing of cabbage vegetables. TO cabbage vegetables Below-pool, blocked, savory, leaf (salad), color, brussels, kale, Kohlrabi, Chinese, Peking, Broccoli.

Belococcal, red, savoy cabbage it is treated equally: clean the upper leaves, washed, cut the kochan into four parts and cut off the peraculsion. For the preparation of cabbage rolls, it is removed without cutting the kochan. Kochechi contain vitamin C and carbohydrates greater than the leaves, so they should be used in the preparation of salads. After cleaning, the cooked cabbage is cut by slices for cooking and allowance; straw - for soups, salads, cabbage Cablet.extinguishing; quadraticles (checkers) - for soups, stew; For the preparation of stuffing, it is finely chopped by manually with sections or on the coupons.

Cabbage leaf depending on the variety has different shape And the color of the leaves. It can be used instead of white cabbage for cooking soups, vegetable dishes, salads. When processing from the leaves, the thickening is cut, washed in running water and dry.

Chinese cabbage - Sheet Salad Cabbage. It is used in fresh form for salads, snacks, dishes, and for cooking boiled cabbage. Prepared as leafy.

W. peking cabbage (variety - chibane cabbage) bottom leaves Collected in a dense outlet (diameter 30--50 cm) or loose kochan. From it you can cook salads, soups, vegetable dishes. Prepare just like cabbage leaf.

Cauliflower. Before use in cauliflower, the leg is cut together with green leaves per 1 cm below the Kochan branching. Dammonious or discharged heads are cut off with a knife or scrape. Slipped kocheans are washed. If the cabbage is damaged by the caterpillars, it is for 15--20 minutes to be placed in cold salted water (40--50 g of salts per 1 liter of water), and then washed.

A variety of cauliflower is broccoli (or asparagus). The fleece head (modified inflorescence) of the broccoli disintegrates into a few rimingly arranged fleshy branches with twisted heads from underdeveloped flower buds. Food is used inflorescences and gentle stems. They are washed with cold water and boiled in boiling salted water 8--10 minutes.

Brussels cabbage. Used brussels cabbage In the raw form for salads, as well as for cooking soups, vegetable dishes. Kochangchiki is not too short from the stem so that their shape is preserved during heat treatment, and then remove damaged leaves and washed.

Kohlrabi sort, purified by hand from the skin and washed. Cut with straw, slices, lumps. Recommended for cooking salads, soups.

Treatment of onion vegetables. The onion is cut off the bottom, neck, remove dry scales, washed in cold water. At large enterprises for cleaning onions, special cabinets are set to remove essential oils.

Before thermal treatment, purified onions are cut by rings, semirings, slices or shallow crumbs. Small bulbs luka-Seiangé and luka-Ishlota after cleaning, use the whole to prepare some sauces (Russian, sailor), stewed dishes And for frying deep.

Leek they move, cut off the roots, remove the yellowed and rotten leaves, cut off the white part (bulb), cut it along, washed and bruised. Green parts are used in the "bouquet of spices" to aromatize broths.

Treatment pumpkin vegetables. Pumpkin used mainly for the preparation of vegetable dishes (stew, fried, etc.). Before preparing dishes, the fruits wash are cut off with a fruit, cut into several parts, remove the seeds, purify the skin, washed and cut into cubes or slices.

For cooking dishes from kabachkov the most suitable Zelentsa is the young marking of the zucchini 7--12-day age, weighing 300--700 g, a length of up to 25 cm and a diameter of up to 10 cm. They are washed, cut off the fruit and cut into circles. With mature zucchini remove the skin, and then remove seeds. In zucchini, intended for stuffing, after cleaning, the top of the fetus is cut off, they cut them across several parts and remove the inner part with seeds.

Patchsons processing and used as zucchini.

Cucumbers sort in size, wash. Large Zeletsy is cleaned with skin, rootishons and small radlets are not purified, and the tops and the base of the fruit are cut. Cut them with circles, slices, small cubes, straw. Use for cooking salads, cold soups.

Treatment of tomato vegetables . Tomatoes sort by the degree of maturity and sizes, removing marked or spoiled instances. Then cut out the fruit and washed. In fruits intended for stuffing, cut off the upper part together with the fruit, take out the seeds with a part of the pulp, give steering the juice, sprinkle with salt, pepper and fill the minced meat. Tomatoes are used raw for salads or fry (for garnings), stuffing and baked.

Eggplant sort, cut off the fruit, washed. Old copies are scald and cleaned. Cut with circles, slices or cubes. The processed fruits intended for stuffing are cut along half or across the cylinders, small eggplants can be stuffed with entirely, remove the flesh with the seeds and fill the minced meat.

Eggplants in raw form are practically not used due to bitterness, which increases as they are matured. Bulfle the fruits gives the substance contained in them. Eggplants are fry and baked (stuffed).

Pepper Strock (acute and sweet) sort, washed, cut along in half, remove seeds with the pulp and washed. Cut with straws for salads and soups, small cubes - for soups. For stuffing, the fruits of sweet pepper are washed, make a ring incision around the fruits and removed together with seeds, without breaking the intake of the pod, washed again, they are put into boiling water for 1--2 minutes (blanched), removed, cooled and fill the minced meat.

Pepper sweet is used for the preparation of salads, vegetable dishes (for example, stuffed pepper).

Treatment of salad, spinage vegetables and spicy greenery. They are widely used in raw form for the preparation of cold snacks, salads, when serving soups, second dishes.

Salad, spinach, sorrel, green bow, spicy greens they move, remove the roots, if there are, coarse stems, spoiled leaves and washed well several times in a large amount of cold water, and then under the jet of running water and dry on the lattices for 20 minutes.

When stored, the greens quickly fade and the content of vitamin C in it decreases. During the three days of storage at room temperature, 17--20% vitamin C is lost, and when stored in refrigerators (3 ° C) is 6--8%. Vitamin C is particularly quickly destroyed, so it should be cut into a small amount of it as it is implemented.

When preparing culinary products, the following types of aromatic greenery are used: dill, parsley, parsnik, celery, mayoran, tarragon (Tarkhun), Kinza (Coriander greens), Issop, basil, mint (peppercar, lemon), cumin, thyme, etc.

Processing of legumes and grain vegetables. Pods of beans and peas are moved, washed and, overwhelming ends, remove veins connecting the sash. Long pods cut across 2--3 parts.

Catheric corn milk-wax ripeness is cleaned immediately before cooking so that the color has not changed. The corn is sliced \u200b\u200band the base is cut off, while the leaves fall along with the stem. Then remove the fibers, covering the cobs, and washed.

Processing dessert vegetables. TO dessert vegetables Refine asparagus and artichokes.

W. asparagus use young shoots. They are carefully cleaned by the skin, trying not to break the head. The lower rude part of the shoots is cut and used for cooking and cooking broths for soups from asparagus. Purified asparagus is put in cold water. When all asparagus is cleaned, it is binding to bundles and boiled. Sparge sparkle white and green. White asparagus is used to prepare sauces, puree soup, boiled dishes with sauces, and green - mostly for garnings.

Artichoka present large inflorescences with a fleshy. When they are processed, stems are cut, the upper coarse pieces of basket petals and internal stamens are removed. Cuts are lubricated with citric acid so that they do not dry.

Processing rhubarb. Food is used by juicy, young leafy stiffs of root leaves that have pink color. Old stuffs are not used in food, as a large amount of oxalic acid accumulates in them. Processing rhubarb: The leaves cut off the leaves in young stuffs, and the skin with a rigid steel surface is removed with a skin with a knife and then washed. Sweet dishes prepare sweet meals (compotes, kisins), filling for pies.

3. Changes in carbohydrates with culinary treatment - inversion of sucrose, alcohol and enzyme fermentation of sugars. The role of these processes in the formation of the quality of public catering

Change carbohydrates . Food products contain monosaccharides (glucose, fructose), oligosaccharides (di- and trisaches - maltose, lactose, etc.), polysaccharides (starch, cellulose, hemicellulose, glycogen) and pectic substances close to carbohydrates.

Changes of sugars. In the process of making various culinary products, a part of the sugars contained in them is split. In some cases, the splitting is limited to the hydrolysis of disaccharides, in others, there is a deeper decay of sugars (fermentation processes, caramelization, melano-idiocortion).

Hydrolysis of disaccharides. Disaccharides are hydrolyzed under the action of both acids and enzymes.

Acid hydrolysis takes place in technological processes as the cooking of fruits and berries in sugar solutions of various concentrations (preparation of compotes, kissels, fruit-berries), baking of apples, boiling sugar with any food acid (fudge preparation).

Sakharoza in aqueous solutions under the influence of acids joins the water molecule and is split on equal amounts of glucose and fructose (sucrose inversion). The resulting invert sugar is well absorbed by the body, has high hygroscopicity and the ability to delay the crystallization of sucrose. If the sweetness of sucrose is taken for 100%, then for glucose this indicator will be 74%, and for fructose - 173%. Therefore, the investigation of the inversion is some increase in the sweetness of syrup or finished products.

The degree of inversion of sucrose depends on the type of acid, its concentration, the duration of heating. Organic acids for inversion ability can be positioned in the following order: oxal, lemon, apple and acetic. In culinary practice, as a rule, acetic and citric acid are used, the first weaker octopic acid at 50, the second - 11 times.

Ferimental hydrolysis are subjected to sucrose and maltose in fermentation and in the initial baking period yeast dough. Sakharaza under the influence of the Sakharaza enzyme is cleaved on glucose and fructose, and maltose under the action of the enzyme material of the material is up to two glucose molecules. Both enzymes are contained in yeast. The sucrose is added to the dough according to its recipe, maltose is formed in the process of hydrolysis from starch. The accumulating monosaccharides are involved in the rupture of yeast dough.

Fermentation. Sugar is subject to deep decay when fermentation of yeast dough. Under the influence of the enzymes of yeast sugar turn into alcohol and carbon dioxide, the latter breaks down the dough. In addition, under the influence of lactic acid bacteria, the sugar in the dough is converted into a lactic acid, which delays the development of rotor processes and contributes to the swelling of gluten proteins.

Caramelization. The deep decomposition of sugars when they are heated above the melting point with the formation of dark grinding products is called caramelization. Fructose melting point 98--102 ° C, glucose - 145--149, sucrose - 160--185 ° C. The processes occurring are complex and are not yet sufficiently studied. They are largely dependent on the type and concentration of sugar, the conditions of heating, the pH of the environment and other factors.

In culinary practice, most often have to deal with the caramelization of sucrose. When it heated during the process in a weakly acidic or neutral medium, partial inversion occurs with the formation of glucose and fructose, which undergo further transformations.

For example, one or two water molecules (dehydration) can be laid out from the glucose molecule, and the formed products (anhydrides) are connected to each other or with the sucrose molecule.

The subsequent thermal effect may lead to the release of the third water molecule to form oxymethyl-furfurol, which, with further heating, can decay to form forming and levulinic acids or to form painted compounds.

Painted compounds are a mixture of substances various degrees Polymerization: Caramelane (the substance of light straw color dissolving in cold water), caramelen (bright brown substance with a ruby \u200b\u200bshade, soluble and cold, and in boiling water), carameline (dark brown substance dissolving only in boiling water) and others, turning into non-exclusive mass (zhizhva). Zhports are used as a food dye.

Caramelization of sugars occurs when bouncing onion and carrots for broths, when baking apples, when preparing many confectionery and sweet dishes.

Melanoidin formation. Submersenoidiniform-in-aim understood the interaction of restoring sugars (monosaccharides and restoring disaccharides, both contained in the product itself and formed during hydrolysis of more complex carbohydrates) with amino acids, peptides and proteins, leading to the formation of dark-painted products - melanoidins (from gr. Melanos - Dark). This process is also called Mayara's reaction, named a scientist who in 1912 described it for the first time.

The reaction of melanoidin formation is of great importance in culinary practice. Its positive role is as follows: it determines the formation of an appetizing crust on fried, baked dishes from meat, birds, fish, baked products from the test; By-products of this reaction are involved in the formation of taste and fragrance. ready dishes.

The negative role of the reaction of melanoidin formation is that it causes a darkening of frying fat, fruit purees, some vegetables; Reduces the biological value of proteins, as amino acids are associated.

In the reaction of melanoidin formation, such amino acids such as lysine, methionine, which most often lacking in plant proteins is especially easily. After the compound with sugars, these acids become inaccessible to digestive enzymes and are not absorbed in the gastrointestinal tract.

In culinary practice, milk is often heated with croups, vegetables. As a result of the interaction of lactose and lysine biological value Proteins of finished dishes decrease.

Posted on Allbest.ru.

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Food processing technologies

Food manufacturing
On the cultivation of animals, birds, fish, crops for mass production of food has already been written a lot and said. However, this is not an easy way to eat to the consumer. The "enriched" heavy heritage of agriculture raw materials falls into recycling. And the main dangers are still ahead.

Modern food production does not seek to neutralize the damage obtained by the product in the process of cultivation. His goal to disguise the shortcomings and as soon as possible to sell the product to the consumer. It would be nice to increase its mass and storage time and not to invest. That is why on the thorny path of the usual meal to our adventure table only begin.

The first and most important problem modern products Nutrition is their microbiological infection, chemical and mechanical pollution.

Bacillus Cereus.
This species occurs everywhere in the cheese milk. Bacterry allocates two types of enterotoxins both in food and in the human body. There is a risk of falling V. Cereus from dry milk. When storing the reduced milk at room temperature for several hours, the bacteria multiplodiate and excrete enterotoxins. This milk is a danger to consumers.

Listeria monocytogenes.
They cause lickeriosis, which can cause death (mortality reaches 30%). Pregnant women, babies, people with weakened immunity and transplanted organs are mainly susceptible to lemgery.

Salmonella.
Salmonella fall into the territory of a dairy plant with raw milk and in violation of technological processes. In particular, in the United States in 1965-1966. At one of the plants of the instant dry milk milk, the bacterium appeared in the product due to non-compliance with the temperature mode of pasteurization and the absence of a drainage valve on the pasteurizer. The source of salmonellosis was probably raw milk. In the mid-1980s, Salmonella Ealing at one of the dairy plants in England was found in dry milk and mixtures for children. These products caused numerous diseases, and in one case led to death. As it turned out, the bacterium has multiplied in the residues of dry milk accumulated in small internal gaps on the walls of the drying unit. All Salmonella Ealing destruction actions were unsuccessful, the equipment was entirely liquidated, the production is closed.

Staphylococcus aureus.
Thermal processing (pasteurization, sterilization) contributes only to a decrease in the number of viable cells of Staphylococcus aureus at the further stages of the technological process, but does not destroy enterotoxin. The stamped products from pasteurized milk staphylococcus occurs when violations in technological processes or improper handling ready product, as well as from people - Staphylococcal carriers. In the 1950s, several foci of poisoning with low-fat dry milk were identified (1200 children were injured). In Puerto Rico, 775 children got sick after taking milk from the USA. As it turned out, after thickening, milk was detained for too long before drying, which created favorable conditions for the development of staphylococcus and the allocation of enterotoxin.

Escherichia coli.
The presence of intestinal sticks in the product indicates a low sanitary level of production and improper processes. Diseases caused by E. coli have various symptoms depending on the strain of the pathogen.
Milk and products from it are most susceptible to microbiological infection. Meat of healthy animals should not be contaminated with microorganisms. However, the acts of nature are successfully corrected by a person - microorganisms still settle on meat when slaughter and cutting. The most common sources of pollution are the processes of covers, removal of skins, feathers, cooling, cutting, pollution of meat with fecal waste, which may still be in the intestine, as well as the presence of bacteria and other contaminants on the instrument and hand of workers. Here are just a few examples of cases of bacterial contaminants in the production of food.

Chemical pollution
All chemicals when entering the human body in doses exceeding permissible levelcan cause poisoning. They can act instantly, for example allergens ( allergic reaction), or some time (heavy metals poisoning). Sources of chemical infections are considered raw materials, various materials (including packaging), machinery and equipment.

Drag very metals.
The compounds of heavy metals can penetrate the products from the equipment and devices used in the dairy business. Statistics records only acute diseases caused by consumption of large doses of heavy metals. As a rule, poisoning proceeds atypically, and the diagnosis is not always correct.

Salts of nitric and nitrate acids (nitrates and nitrites).
Products detected salt nitric and nitrate acids. Sources of their appearance - drinking water, detergents For equipment, boilers used in factories. Doctors and hygienists consider it dangerous that salts of nitric and nitrogenic acids are in food due to the possible blockade of the physiological functions of the hemoglobin of blood and stimulating neoplastic processes.

Antibiotics and other drugs.
Antibiotics can get into food not only because of their maintenance in raw materials. It is using antibiotics that many products produce products are struggling with possible microbiological infection of the product (see above). Antibiotics and products of their metabolism can cause allergies or symptoms of poisoning, reduce the sensitivity of pathogenic microflora (it becomes resistant to antibiotics), inhibition of the activity of useful microflora, contribute to the development of fungal diseases in humans.

Sanitary means.
Often, chemical pollution occurs when washing and disinfection (up to 25% of food poisoning). The presence of surfactants (surfactant) affects organoleptic, technological and toxicological properties.

Technical pollution.
E.it may be oils or technical lubricants for equipment. They penetrate the products during preventive work for equipment. Operation of equipment and reinforcements made from inappropriate materials, such as copper, zinc, causes a transition of substances from these materials to products. About the consequences of health physicians speak a lot and often.

Fighting infection and pollution.
How are food manufacturers from chemical, and most importantly, microbiological danger fight? With chemical, perhaps, in no way, and with microorganisms you have to fight, for they affect product quality of the product. On the use of antibiotics, which are applied to the inner side of the container, or introduced into the product itself, we have already spoken. Also for this apply food preservatives.
But there are also other ways and technologies that cannot be attributed to the neutral human health. For example, its radiation irradiation is widely used to disinfect meat. And although the technologists assure that the doses of radiation obtained by the product, microscopic, we know about the ability of radioactive elements to accumulate in the body.
For dairy products, the approval is fair that there is a mass of techniques and ways to sell a poor-quality product under the guise of usual, disguising its shortcomings and dangers. Most often, such falsification occurs by adding water to it, hydrogen peroxide, sodium carbon dioxide, sulfanimamides or antibiotics.

Mechanical pollution
Such pollution can get into the product in the production process. For example, many bakeries use soft metal machines. When processing grain, such a metal is shredding and falls into the flour. The same can occur when processing any products to be frown, for example, in a semi-bracket. Without special analyzes, it is almost impossible to detect small needle-free metallic dust. Such a cereal, or bread from such flour capable of leading gastritis and chronic stomach ulcers.

Reception and technology
Next comes the preparation of food. Modern technologists work not to stop hands to reduce the process of production, but at the same time preserve and even improve the transportation and storage time products. Chemistry goes to meet with sevenmile steps. And as a result, the product falling on our table may look like quite normal and even appetizing, but it consists of a whole table of Mendeleev.

Extending storage period
To increase the storage period of products, they usually introduce preservatives . But they will not necessarily be contained in the product itself. The same antibiotics Use meat and other products to withstand in them for a few minutes. Thus, it is possible to extend the "life" of meat more than 2 times.
In some countries, the poultry meat is treated with chloretteracycline, they are used as an additive to ice for transporting fresh fish.
Fruits, more often citrus, dip in front of a laying on a solution of diphenyl solution, substances from a group of pesticides. Apples are covered with a thin wax layer with adding fungicida , and grapes are dipped with sulfur gas.
Manufacturers of meat products solve the problem of increasing the storage period of raw materials and slowing the inevitable processes of rotting in meat as follows: in minces and meat products add nitrate sodium and nitrite sodium providing a "cosmetic" effect, giving the product pink color. Studies show that sodium nitrite forms carcinogenic compounds in the human body, so-called nitrosoamines, as well as deprives the hemoglobin of the ability to deliver oxygen in the body tissue. This compound is highly toxic for children, it is the cause of embryonic defects in pregnant women and is particularly dangerous for people suffering from anemia.

Sodium sulfite Destroying vitamin B is another carcinogen, universally added to meat. It prevents the appearance of a rotten smell and article gives me a "natural" red, whatever old and unsaveaway in reality it is.

Nitrites and nitrates (nitrogenous potassium and sodium E-249, E-250; Potassium nitric acid E-251, E-252) add to sausages, sausages, pigwise, some delicacious canned meatAs well as in the embonimal mixture at the meat.

Accelerating technologies
In modern food production, technologies are widespread, allowing to reduce food preparation. As a rule, such catalysts of technological processes serve substances, far distinguished by our body. For example, in the preparation of smoked sausages are widely used ripening accelerators. The process of drying cheesecake sausage under normal conditions passes several weeks, and this is unprofitable. Therefore, drying is carried out in a chemical method, with the use of substances, "pulling" water from the product. The danger of these substances for a person is not officially confirmed, but also not excluded, research is actively continuing.

Process smoked , sausages, meat, fish, etc. - this is a long and expensive process, it is not accidentally smoked to the discharge of delicacious products. "Traditional" smoking translates valuable product Nutrition in the category of carcinogens, it was revealed for another thirty-forty years ago. And to speed up the process manufacturers went even further. They developed technology liquid smoked . That is, the product before drying is just dipping in the hood of chemical components and smoke smoke. Smoked aroma with a spicy tint by 66% is associated with the presence of phenol and by 14% - carbonyl compounds, and 20% accounted for all other smoke components. Phenol Extremely toxic. Carbonyl compounds This is formaldehyde, glyoxal, furfural (has a smell of rye bread), acetone, glycolic aldehyde and methylglyoxal, etc. The last "components" and give golden-smoked "delicacy", however, with the destruction of amino acids (proteins) of the product.

Technological additives
We have already talked about food additives With marking E, which is enriched with products in the process of mass production on the way to our table.

However, this is not all. Almost all products are present mennoe modified components . As a result of transformations, such products acquire new properties, for example, vegetables and fruits become toxic for insects and viruses causing plant diseases, becomes larger and more resistant to herbicides.

In the sausage industry is widely used protein preparations of vegetable origin - It is basically soybeans. There is still disputes in the world about how harmful or safe is it. But still research will not be completed until it is confirmed by the fact that it is safe, it is unlikely to justify such a wide introduction into our lives. Moreover, almost any soybean transgenic. And the one that is not transgenic is much more expensive, which means that it is not interested in major producers.

Here is just an approximate list of additives used by our meat industry:

protein stabilizers:
Pork peel. Dairy-protein concentrates (dry, liquid or pasty). Protein stabilizer from pork skirts, veins or tendons. Pressured pork mass after a mechanical dobscreen. Dairy products (solid and skimmed milk, Dry or liquid cream). Protein preparations of vegetable origin are mainly soybean products: Soy flour (mass fraction Protein in a dry matter at least 45%). Soy concentrate (at least 65% protein). Software isolate (at least 91% protein).

Food additives required in technological process Food production:

• technological accelerators;
• mioglobin locks;
• technological food additives (jelly workers, bleach, etc.);
• food quality improvers;

Decipher the composition and properties of each such additive does not make sense, but in the end source Product Little remains. And what remains is molded by the help of food shells.

Dangerous food shells.
For the manufacture of shells for sausages and cheeses, a synthetic polymer polyvinylidene chloride is used, or PVDX. In Russia, the production of such shells is increasing, as they are very cheap and "technologically".

In our country, it is allowed to use polymer PVDX in the production of sausage-cheese coatings, despite the danger of transition toxic impurities from the shell to the product itself. It is not even harmful to the PVDX itself, and the substance from which it is produced is a monomer (ethylene, styrene, butadiene, phenol, etc.). When experimenting over laboratory animals it was found that under the influence of these substances, the mice develop hemangiosarcoms of the liver and kidneys. For some reason, this was not impressed by our oversight organs, and the polymer is widely used to date.

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