(Historical and astronomical research, issue 17)

The famous Danish astronomer Tycho (Latinized form of the Danish name Thuge) Brahe (1546-1601) went down in the history of astronomy as a pioneer of systematic observations. For nearly two decades, he conducted precise astronomical observations at the Uraniborg-Stjerneborg observatory on the island of Ven in the Sound, equipped with unique instruments. Tycho Brahe's invaluable observations became the basis on which his assistant and successor Johannes Kepler derived his famous three laws of planetary motion, which became the triumph of Copernicus's heliocentric system and filled it with real physical content.

The excerpt from Tycho Brahe's Mechanics of Renewed Astronomy (1598) published below belongs to an unusual genre of scientific autobiographies, in which the events of the author's personal life fade into the background, yielding to the first analysis of his own scientific achievements. The reason for the retrospective self-assessment of what was done in science and reflections on future achievements was the forced break in observations, when Tycho Brahe had to, leaving the magnificent observatory on the island of Vienna, look for a temporary shelter in the Wandbeck castle near Hamburg with his friend Heinrich Rantzau. Using engravings of astronomical instruments and structures of his observatory, imprinted in the printing house of Urapiborg, Brahe, on a machine taken from Uraniborg, printed a small number of copies of the first, luxurious edition intended as donations to noble lovers of astronomy. The second edition, more modest, but printed in a significantly larger circulation, was published in 1602, after the death of Tycho Brahe.

In 1921, "The Mechanics of Renewed Astronomy" was published in the first part of Volume V of "The Complete Works of Tycho Brahe, Dane" [ Tychonis Brahe Dani Opera omnia .-- Kabenhavn. 1921 (t. V, fasc. I)] edited by the famous historian of astronomy and author of biography Tycho Brahe J. Dreyer.

The Russian translation was made according to this edition (pp. 106-118) and verified with the English translation prepared for the 400th anniversary of Tycho Brahe by Danish astronomers G. Raeder, E. Stromgren and B. Stromgren [ Tycho Brahe "s Description of his Instruments and scientific work. Kebenhavn, 1946.]

Yu. A. Danilov

ABOUT WHAT WE HAVE WITH GOD'S HELP HAS BEEN DONE IN ASTRONOMY AND WHAT WITH HIS BLESSED SUPPORT SHOULD STILL BE DONE

(Translation by Yu.A. Danilov)

In the year of our Lord 1563, that is, 35 years ago, during the great conjunction of the upper planets, which fell on the end of Cancer and the beginning of Leo, when I was sixteen years old, I studied classical literature in Leipzig, where I lived with my tutor at the expense of my beloved uncle on the part of my father Jorgen Brahe, who died about 30 years ago, my father Otto Brahe, whose memory I honor, did not care too much that his five sons, of whom I was the eldest, studied Latin, although he later regretted this ... Uncle Jorgen raised me from my childhood. He also gave me generous support until I came of age. My uncle always treated me like his own son, and bequeathed all his fortune to me. Uncle had no children of his own. He was married to the noble and wise Mrs. Inger Oksa, sister of the great Peder Oksa, who later became the chancellor of the Danish kingdom. My aunt, who died 5 years ago, treated me with exceptional love all her life, as if I were her own son. During the reign of the blessed memory of King Frederick II, the aunt was a maid of honor at the Queen's court for 12 years. In this post, she was replaced and for 8 years remained the maid of honor of Her Majesty, my beloved and highly esteemed mother Beata Bille. By the grace of God, she has now reached the age of 71. Fate wanted my uncle to kidnap me without the knowledge of my parents when I was just a child. In the seventh year of my life, he sent me to grammar school, and when I was 13 years old [should be: 15 years old], he sent me to continue my studies in Leipzig, where I stayed for 3 years. I go back to such a long past to explain how I, first studying liberal arts, turned to Astronomy, and also out of a desire to gratefully revive the memory of my parents who were so kind to me.

Now I pass to the very essence of my story. Back in my homeland in Denmark, I got hold of several books, mostly ephemeris. It was they who allowed me to get acquainted with the beginnings of Astronomy - a subject to which I had a natural inclination. In Leipzig I began a more thorough study of Astronomy. I did this in spite of the disapproval and opposition of the tutor, who did the will of my parents, whose desire was for me to study law (which I did, as far as my age allowed). I secretly bought books on astronomy and secretly read them so that the tutor would not know anything about my studies. Gradually, I learned to distinguish the constellations in the sky, and after a month I could accurately name those of them that are located in the visible part of the sky. To memorize the constellations, I used a small celestial globe the size of a fist, which I secretly took with me in the evenings. I mastered all this myself, without any help or guidance. I have never been fortunate enough to have a teacher who would instruct me in mathematics, otherwise I would have achieved much greater success in these sciences, and in less time.

Before long, the motions of the planets attracted my attention. Having noted the position of the planets among the fixed stars by straight lines drawn mentally through the planets, I already at that time, having only a small celestial globe at hand, established that their positions in the sky did not agree with either the Alfonsine or Copernican tables, although there was agreement with the latter better than the former. After that, I began to observe the planets with increasing attention and often compared their position with the data given in the "Prussian Tables" (which I also got acquainted with without anyone's help). I no longer believed the ephemeris, since I realized that the ephemeris of G. Stage, which at that time were the only tables calculated on the basis of the Prussian tables, were in many respects inaccurate and erroneous. Since I had no astronomical instruments at my disposal, and my tutor would not allow me to buy them, at first I had to be content with very large compasses. I placed the top of the compass as close to the eye as possible, directed one leg to the observed planet, and the other to some fixed star located near it. Sometimes I measured the angular distances between the planets in the same way and determined (using simple calculations) the ratio of the angular distance between the planets to the full circle. Although my method of observation was not very accurate, nevertheless with its help I managed to make significant progress: I did not have the slightest doubt that both the Alfonsine and Copernican tables contain monstrous errors. This was especially evident during the great conjunction of Saturn and Jupiter in 1563, which I mentioned at the beginning. For me, it became a starting point for the following reason. If we compare with the Alfonsine tables, then the discrepancy was a whole month, if we compare with the Copernican tables, then several (albeit very few) days, since Copernicus's calculations for these two planets do not deviate too much from the true motion in the sky. This is especially true of Saturn, which, according to my observations, never deviated more than half a degree or two-thirds of a degree from the data of the Copernican tables, while the deviations of Jupiter sometimes reached large values.

Later, in 1564, I secretly acquired a wooden astronomical "Jacob's staff" (radius), made according to the instructions of Gemma Frisia. Bartholomew Skultet, who lived at that time in Leipzig, with whom I maintained friendly relations on the basis of common interests, provided this instrument with precise divisions with transversal dots. The school learned the principle of transversal points from its teacher Gomeli. Having obtained Jacob's staff, I did not miss a single opportunity when the night was starry, and I tirelessly made observations. Often I was in vigil all night long. My tutor, suspecting nothing, slept peacefully, since I made observations in the light of the stars and entered the data obtained in a specially kept booklet, which I have preserved to this day. I soon noticed that the angular distances, which, according to the indications of Jacob's staff, should have coincided, converted by mathematical calculations into numbers, did not agree with each other in everything. After I was able to locate the source of the error, I devised a spreadsheet that allowed me to make corrections and thereby take into account the staff defects. To acquire a new limb was still not possible, since the tutor, who held the strings from the wallet in his hands, would not allow such expenses. That is why, while living in Leipzig and later on my return to my homeland, I made many observations with this staff.

Arriving then in Germany, I took up a careful study of the stars, first in Wittenberg and then in Rostock. In 1569, and the next year, when I lived in Augsburg, I very often observed the stars, not only with the help of a very large quadrant I built in the burgomaster's garden outside the city, but also with the help of another instrument - a wooden sextant invented me at that time. I entered the results of observations into a special book. I diligently continued my observations later, but returning home, using another similar instrument of somewhat larger size, especially when a strange new star flashed in 1572. This event compelled me to abandon the chemistry studies, which greatly captivated me after I began them in Ayrc6ypre, and continued until 1572, and devote myself entirely to the study of celestial phenomena. When I noticed a new star, I described it in detail, first in a small book, and then more carefully and thoughtfully in a large volume. Over time, I began to acquire more and more astronomical instruments. I took some of them with me when I set off on a new journey across Germany and parts of Italy. Even on the way, I continued to observe the stars whenever the opportunity presented itself. Having finally returned home (by that time I was 28 years old), I began to gradually prepare for a new, longer journey.

I decided to settle in Basel or not far from this city, where I had been before, not without intent. I set out to lay the foundation there for the revival of Astronomy. The area around Basel seemed to me more attractive than other areas of Germany, partly because of the famous University of Basel and the excellent scientists who lived in Basel, partly because of the healthy climate and pleasant living conditions and, finally, because Basel is located in the place where, so to speak, the three largest European countries - Italy, France and Germany - meet. Such a favorable location made it possible by correspondence to establish friendly relations with famous and learned people in various places. Thus, my inventions would become more famous and would be useful for a wider circle. In addition, I had a premonition that it would be far from easy and not easy for me to implement my plans in my homeland, and especially if I stay in Scania, in my ancestral domain Knudstrup or in some other larger province of Denmark, where an endless stream of nobility and friends now and then would tear me away from my scientific pursuits and would serve as a considerable obstacle on the way to the implementation of my plans. But it so happened that while I was mentally going over all these arguments and gradually preparing for my departure, without telling anyone about my intentions, the fond memory of the noble and powerful Frederick II, King of Denmark and Norway, sent his courtiers to me with a letter in which he asked me to immediately find him while he is in Zealand. Immediately before this excellent monarch, whom it was impossible to pay tribute to in full, I learned that he, of his own free will and his most merciful command, would grant me an island in the famous Danish Sound. Our compatriots call him Ven, in Latin he is usually called Venusia, and foreigners call him Scarletina (Scarlet Island). The King asked me to erect buildings on this island and build instruments and instruments for astronomical and chemical research, and he generously promised to reimburse all expenses generously. After some thought and asking for advice from some of the clever people, I abandoned my original plan and willingly agreed with the king's proposal, especially after I realized that on an island located between Scania and Zealand, I could get rid of annoying visitors and therefore, in my own country, to which I owe much more than other countries, the silence and comfort that I was looking for on the side. So in 1576 I started to build Uraniborg Castle, adapted to the studies of Astronomy, and over time I built buildings and various astronomical instruments suitable for making accurate observations. The most important ones are described and explained in this book.

With all my energy I set about observing, and in my work I resorted to the help of several students of talent and keen eyesight. I kept these disciples with me inseparably, teaching them group after group first one, then another science. By the grace of God, it so happened that there was hardly at least one day or night with clear weather, when we did not make a lot of very accurate astronomical observations of fixed stars, as well as planets and comets that appeared during this time, of which we observed seven in the sky from your island. The observations, carried out with great care, lasted 21 years. At first I collected them into one large volume, but later I divided them into smaller books - one book for each year, and made exact copies of each book. When recording observations, I adhered to such an order that the fixed stars observed in a particular year were assigned their place, the planets - their place, and first there were records relating to the Sun and the Moon, and then - in order - to five other planets up to Mercury, for I also observed this planet, although it is extremely rare visible.

We made very careful observations of Mercury both in the morning and in the evenings. The great Copernicus, trying to explain why he failed to observe Mercury, refers to too high latitude and evaporation from the Vistula River. We, being at an even greater latitude and, moreover, on an island surrounded on all sides by the sea, which incessantly gives rise to evaporation, observed Mercury many times, as I have already said, and determined its position. Perhaps the house where Copernicus lived is located so that the horizon does not open from it in all directions, and therefore is not quite suitable for observations, especially at low altitudes. I also heard about this from one of my assistants, whom I sent 14 years ago to investigate the height of the pole. Since Copernicus did not have his own observations of Mercury on which he could rely, he had to borrow some data from the volume of observations of Walter, a student of Regiomontanus from Nuremberg. And although his opinions and proofs, carried out with care and rigor, were not based on them, nevertheless we would like that in the case of other planets, the orbits of which he tried with extraordinary audacity to determine with the help of his own observations, the data he used did not contain even greater inaccuracies. ... For then we would already know their apogee and eccentricities, and this would allow me to save many years of painstaking, tireless work and avoid colossal expenses. Now, with 21 years of carefully selected high-precision observations made in the sky with the various ingeniously constructed instruments described in the preceding pages (not to mention the observations made over the preceding 14 years), I cherish them as very rare and precious. treasure. Perhaps someday I will publish them, if the Lord, by His grace, allows me to add new observations to them.

All this shows that since I was 16 years old, I have continuously observed stars and continued my observations for almost 35 years - up to the present time. Of course, not all observations are made with the same precision and are equally important. Those of them that I produced in Leipzig in my youth and until I was 21 years old, I usually call children's and consider it doubtful. Those that I produced later, until I was 28 years old, I call youthful and I consider quite suitable. As for the observations that make up the third group, which I made in Uraniborg for about 21 years with great care using high-precision instruments at a more mature age, until I was 50 years old, I call them observations of my maturity, quite reliable and accurate. , because I consider them as such. It was on these observations that I relied when, sparing no effort, I began to lay the foundations and create a renewed Astronomy, although some of the earlier observations were also thoroughly used by me. And now I will describe what, with God's help, I was able to accomplish and prepare in this area, and what, with the same mercy of God, will have to be fulfilled and brought to full completion in the future. First of all, with the help of the most careful observations over a number of years, we have determined the path of the Sun. We have investigated not only the passage of the Sun through the equinox points. We were also interested in the positions between the points of equinoxes and solstices, especially on the northern semicircle of the ecliptic, since refraction does not interfere with observing the Sun at noon on it. Observations were made in both cases, and more than once. Using them, I mathematically calculated the apogee and eccentricity corresponding to the observations. As for both, an obvious error crept into the Alphonsine tables, as well as into the work of Copernicus, therefore the apogee of the Sun is almost 3 ° higher than the value given by Copernicus. The eccentricity reaches almost 2 1/6 parts, if the radius of the eccentric orbit is taken as 60 parts, while the value given by Copernicus is almost 1/4 less [ Copernicus gives the value of the eccentricity equal to 0.0323, or 1.938, if the radius of the eccentric orbit is taken as 60. This corresponds to the maximum inequality of longitude 1 ° 51 ". According to Tycho Brahe, the eccentricity is 0.0359, or 2.156, and the inequality is 2 ° 3"]. He also makes a mistake in determining the uniform motion of the Sun over these years, reaching almost a quarter of a degree. From this, one can judge the accuracy of the definitions by alfonsins by comparing them with the definitions according to Copernicus. From these data, I deduced the rules for the uniform motion of the Sun and its prostapheresis and established them according to the exact values. Now there can be no longer any doubt that the Sun's orbit is precisely determined and supported by the corresponding numbers. The first thing to start with was this work on the Sun, because the movements of celestial bodies depend on it and because the Sun moves along the ecliptic, to which other motions are usually attributed. I also determined the inclination of the ecliptic relative to the equator and obtained a value different from that given by Copernicus and his contemporaries, namely 23 ° and 31 1/2 minutes, that is, 3 "/ 2 more than theirs. I took into account the refraction of the Sun in his winter position - a value that they carelessly overlooked.We also compiled tables for various circular motions of the Sun and added to them tables of declination and right ascension based on our observations.In addition, with the help of special tables, we took into account its parallax and refraction.

As for the Moon, we tried with equal zeal to explain its intricate orbit, polysyllabic and far from so easily and simply amenable to calculation, as the ancients and Copernicus believed. The fact is that the orbit of the Moon reveals another inequality in longitude, unnoticed by these astronomers. They did not define with sufficient precision the proportions inherent in her treatment. In addition, the limits of the maximum latitude of the moon differ from the values \u200b\u200bfound by Ptolemy, whom all subsequent astronomers echoed in this matter with excessive credulity. Indeed, the inequality of the Moon, which I am talking about, even varies unevenly, with deviations reaching a third of a degree. The nodes - the points of intersection of the Moon's orbit with the ecliptic - also move not uniformly, as was commonly believed: each revolution of the Moon in orbit forces them to move forward and backward, deviations are very significant and reach a little more than one and a half degrees in both directions. All this can be seen from our careful observation and calculations, including those related to 18 lunar eclipses, which we observed with high accuracy, because, contrary to the opinion of Ptolemy, Albathenia and Copernicus, three lunar eclipses are not enough to determine the first inequality. We also used six solar eclipses for the same purpose, as far as they could be useful. In addition, we observed the Moon in quadratures and at the moments of the greatest deviation from the mean motion - near the apogee and. perigee, as well as at intermediate points. To determine its complex orbit, observations were made in various ways and often cost us many years of incredible efforts. However, then we managed to find methods that allow us to subordinate the uneven and varied wanderings of the Moon to the rules expressed by circles and numbers. Having accepted the new hypothesis, which was in agreement with the phenomena, we fitted the numbers relating to uniform and non-uniform movements, not only in longitude, but also in latitude, and took into account parallax by a method different from that adopted by Ptolemy and Copernicus and at the same time consistent with observations and with the hypothesis itself. We also took into account the refraction of the Moon, since without it it would be impossible to distinguish the rest. All these and some other dependencies related to the Moon, we have summarized in precise tables in order to deduce the movements described by them with the help of calculations. Having determined, in full accordance with the celestial phenomena, the orbits of both celestial bodies [ That is, the sun and the moon. (Note transl.)], we got the opportunity to establish with absolute accuracy their eclipses, relative positions, movements and positions, which is long overdue. Everything that we have said about the orbits of the Sun and the Moon and about the correspondence with celestial phenomena is clearly stated along with other topics in the first chapter of our "Fundamental Principles of Revived Astronomy". Anyone who is interested. astronomy, will find in this work everything he wants. As for the further study of these celestial bodies, all that is missing is a description of the movements, suitable for many centuries, and a greater generality of presentation. It would be quite easy to achieve both if one could believe the observations of the ancients and our predecessors, on which further study should be based. We leave the full and exhaustive exposition of this range of questions to our work "Astronomical Theater", but for now those who are interested in astronomy can be content with what has been said in the aforementioned part of the "Basic Principles" and will find there whatever they want.

As far as time and circumstances permitted, we have carefully determined the positions of all fixed stars visible to the naked eye, even those that are considered sixth magnitude stars - their longitude and latitude. The accuracy reached one arc minute, and in some cases even half an arc minute. This is how we determined the positions of a thousand stars. The ancients were able to count only 22 more stars, because they lived at a lower geographical latitude, where they could see about 200 more stars, constantly hidden from us. But we determined the positions of other stars, which are very small and were not included by the ancients in the catalog. To fulfill this grandiose plan
it took us almost 20 years as we set out to investigate the whole problem with great care using various tools. But since the smallest stars are visible only in winter, when the nights are dark enough, and even then, if there is no moon in the sky, then we were able to fully complete our plan only after many years of patient labor. In addition, during the new moons, which are most suitable for this type of work, the sky is rarely clear. The method used by us to accurately determine the longitudes of fixed stars from the equinox point is described in sufficient detail in the second chapter of the above-mentioned "Fundamentals". Its essence lies in the use of Venus as the morning and evening stars as a link between the Sun and the fixed stars. This connection is carried out by several stars, and all of them are correlated with the brightest star above the head of Aries, which is considered to be the third. (We give preference to this star because the two previous stars are fainter.) From what was said in Basic Principles, it will become clear how we determined the positions of the other stars relative to this star and, in particular, how we used the triple procedure, relying on some stars located along the zodiac and the equator throughout the sky, and we were able to plot intervals that completely fill the entire circle. I also noticed that the unevenness of the rate of change in longitude is not as significant as Copernicus assumed. His erroneous ideas about this phenomenon followed from the incorrect observations of the ancients who lived in later times. Therefore, the precession of the equinox point over these years did not occur as slowly as he argued, because in our time, fixed stars move one degree not in a hundred years, as indicated in his table, but only in 72 years. If we carefully check the observations of our predecessors, it turns out that this has happened almost always. The resulting unevenness is very weak and due to random causes. We will explain this in more detail in due time, if the Lord wills.

The fact that the latitudes of the stars also undergo changes due to the change in the inclination of the ecliptic was first discovered by me. In the already mentioned chapter, I proved this with various examples. So, we have the right to assert with unshakable confidence, and our opinion is confirmed by observations that the positions of fixed stars have been determined by us with absolute and infallible accuracy. We determined the positions of many stars several times, using different instruments, and invariably came to the same result. In doing this work, we did not use mechanical devices, although we had a large bronze globe, and found the position of each star using cumbersome trigonometric calculations. This will become clear from what is said at the end of the chapter we mentioned about the constellation Cassiopeia (in which we counted 26 stars - twice as many as the ancients), but for many other stars, if necessary, we improved trigonometric measurements and calculations in even more so. If the ancients and our predecessors had spent so much work on determining the positions of the stars, then their catalog, which has come down to us since the time of Hipparchus, would not be full of errors. In reality, however, the catalog is incorrect even within 1/6 of a degree of accuracy - with which the positions of the stars are given - and contains much larger errors, often completely intolerable. To be convinced of this, it is enough to consider the angular distances between the stars, which always remain unchanged. For a huge number of stars, the angular distances differ significantly from those given for the ancients. The fact that fixed stars always retain their relative position is quite clearly indicated by the stars, which, according to Hipparchus and Ptolemy, are located on one straight line: they still remain on a straight line. In due time we will present a catalog of all stars for which we have determined longitudes and latitudes with an accuracy of 1 arc minute, and in some cases, as already mentioned, 1/2 arc minute.

We not only tried to carefully determine the longitudes and latitudes of fixed stars, but also for some especially important stars (up to 100 in total) we derived right ascensions and declinations using trigonometric calculations, and attributed both to the years falling on the beginning of two centuries (namely - by 1600 and 1700), which made it possible, using a simple proportion, to obtain similar values \u200b\u200bfor epochs in intermediate years. We managed to take into account the refraction of stars using a special table compiled on the basis of numerous experiments. Determining the exact positions of fixed stars, neglecting refraction, is impossible, especially if the stars are near the horizon at an altitude of less than 20 degrees. Therefore, we made it a habit to introduce a refraction correction whenever it was necessary to determine the refined position of the stars. In the case of fixed stars, the refraction is slightly different from that of the Sun (may I make that remark). The refraction of stars is also somewhat different from the refraction of the Moon, as was discovered and explained by us several years ago.

As for the stars, it remains only to indicate their general movement for all centuries from the creation of the world. It would not be so difficult to do this with all care if the observations of the ancients in this area were not accepted as true. Nevertheless, I am convinced that, by introducing the appropriate amendments, I will be able to satisfy, as far as possible, astronomers in this respect.

It would be desirable to add to the first thousand stars I have identified other stars included in the catalog by the ancients and invisible in our latitudes. There are also stars that remained invisible to the ancients who lived in the Egyptian lands, namely, the stars located around the south pole of the sky. From the stories of people who sailed across the equator, we also know that the most beautiful stars shine there too. As for the first proposal, it would be necessary to go to Egypt or some other place in Africa and make a detailed list of the stars visible in that part of the world. To achieve the second goal, it would be necessary to go by sea to South America or some other country lying on the other side of the equator, from where all the stars around the south pole are visible, and observe them from there. If some powerful and noble gentlemen took upon themselves the concern of fulfilling our, and not only our, desires in these two relations, then they would do a very good deed and deserve forever unfading gratitude. However, as far as is known, so far no one has even attempted anything like this properly; not to mention the full implementation of our intentions. I would gladly provide the necessary tools and devices if someone would undertake to organize the work and find the right people for this very worthy undertaking.

Finally, when it comes to exploring the intricate paths of the other five planets and trying to explain them, I did my best. In this whole area, we collected first of all apogee and eccentricities, and then angular motions and ratios of planetary orbits and periods, as a result of which they do not contain more numerous errors of previous studies. We have shown that the very apogee of the planets is subject to another inequality that has not been noticed before. In addition, we made the discovery that the annual period, which Copernicus explained by the movement of the Earth in a large circle, while the ancients explained using epicycles, is subject to variation. All this and much more connected with it, we have corrected by accepting a special hypothesis, invented and developed by us 14 years ago, based on the phenomena. Some, including three with very famous names, did not disdain to appropriate our hypothesis and pass it off as their own invention. In due time, if it is God's will, I will indicate in which cases they did it, I will stigmatize and reject their insolent claims, and I will also prove that the essence of the matter is exactly as I say, and I will do it with such clarity that no impartial person will doubt my correctness and will contradict me. But if they honestly admit their mistake and give me back what is mine, then I will forgive them. That is why I now deliberately refrain from publicizing their names.

We did not leave unchanged and breadth, but subjected to a thorough revision the results of our predecessors, starting with Ptolemy. For five planets, we compiled a detailed record of their latitudes during the entire revolution, and from these observations, we determined the revised values \u200b\u200bof maximum latitudes and passages over the ecliptic so that everything was in accordance with the sky. At the same time, we clearly noticed that the nodes and maximum latitudes of the three upper planets are not directly dependent on the motions of their apogee, but have a special motion, at least if we assume that the corresponding results of Ptolemy are those that are used without corrections for their own the observations, in the Alfonsine tables and Copernicus, are correct. As a result, it may well be that the planets in the sky are latitude to the south, while the tables indicate latitude to the north, or vice versa.

As for all five planets, there is only one thing left: to build new, correct tables, expressing in numbers everything established in more than 25 years of careful celestial observations (not to mention the observations of the previous 10 years) and thereby proving the inaccuracy of ordinary tables. We started this work and laid the foundations for it. It will not be difficult to complete it with the help of several calculators, and the results will serve as the basis for calculating the ephemeris for any number of years to come, whatever you like. The same can be done for the Sun and Moon, for which we already have tables. Thus, we will get the opportunity with the greatest ease to demonstrate to our descendants that the course of the heavenly bodies in the form as defined by us is consistent with the phenomena and transmitted in all respects correctly.

Finally, for the comprehensive improvement of Astronomy, it would be extremely important if we mastered the correct way to determine not only the geographical latitudes, but also the geographical longitudes of various localities on Earth. We have thoroughly investigated this problem and have come to the conclusion that our definitions for different places are more accurate than the previous ones. However, this problem cannot be dealt with without referring to the observations of the time of several lunar eclipses, made with equal accuracy by different observers in several places far from each other. Therefore, if kings, princes and other powerful nobles in parts of the world separated by great distances had shown generosity and made the appropriate preparations, they would have done a truly good deed, and Astronomy, which requires the most diverse earthly horizons, would have taken another step towards greater perfection.

Observing with unremitting diligence over the years these eternal celestial bodies, as old as the world, we studied with equal diligence all the new celestial bodies in the etheric regions that appeared during this time, and above all the new and most wonderful star, which first became visible at the end 1572 and remained for 16 months, after which it completely disappeared. We dedicated a small book to this star, in which we described how it looked while it was visible, which I have already mentioned. Returning to this work a few years later, we prepared a whole volume about this star, taking into account the miraculous nature of the phenomenon, and considered it appropriate to include it in the first volume of Basic Principles for the reasons indicated in this work. In this volume, I not only clearly set out our own observations of the wonderful star and explained them geometrically, but also discussed the opinions of others about the same star, as far as I was able to collect them and become familiar with them. I did this with scientific freedom, studying opinions and figuring out whether the obi agree with the truth or not.

We also prepared a special book about a large comet that appeared five years later. In Pei we have detailed everything related to the comet, including our own observations and definitions, as well as the opinions of others. We have added to the book several brochures on the same topic, in which the problem of comets has been covered more fully. We intend to include both the book and the brochures in the first part of the second volume of Fundamentals. In the second part, we will, if it be God's will, consider the other six smaller comets, which we observed just as carefully in the following years. While this has not yet been fully completed, the more important sections and much of the evidence have already been prepared. The permanent stars did not leave us enough time to observe these fading and rapidly sweeping celestial bodies. Nevertheless, I hope, with the help of a merciful God, to complete the second part of the second volume. In this volume, I will give clear evidence that all the comets I observed moved in the ethereal regions of the world and never in the sublunar air, as Aristotle and his followers tried without any reason to convince us for many convicts. For some comets, the evidence will be crystal clear, for others, within the possibilities presented to me. The reasons why I consider comets in the second volume of Fundamentals, before the presentation of information about five other planets, to which I assign the third volume, are set out in the preface. But the main reason is this: the results relating to comets, the true ethereal nature of which I will prove with certainty, show that the entire sky is transparent and clean and cannot contain any solid and real spheres. Comets move in such orbits that are inadmissible for any celestial sphere. Thus, it is proved that there is nothing unreasonable in the hypothesis we have invented, since, as we discovered, there is no penetration of some spheres into others and no limiting distances, since solid spheres do not exist in reality.

We will confine ourselves to this brief account of what we have accomplished in Astronomy and what we have yet to accomplish.

In the field of Astrology, we have also done work that should not be looked down upon by those who study: the influences of the stars. Our goal was to rid this area of \u200b\u200bmistakes and prejudices and to achieve the best possible agreement with the experience on which it is based. I think that in this area, an ideally accurate theory comparable to mathematical and astronomical truth is hardly possible. In my youth, I had a greater interest in this "predictive part of Astronomy, which deals with divination and based on guesswork. As I grew older and realized that the paths of the stars on which Astrology was based were not well known, I postponed studying Astrology until I could satisfy this After I managed to achieve a more accurate knowledge of the orbits of celestial bodies, I began to study Astrology from time to time and came to the conclusion that this science, although it is considered useless and meaningless not only by ignorant people, but also by most learned men, including even a few astronomers, is actually more reliable than one might think. We would not want to initiate others into this kind of astrological knowledge, since we have done a lot in this area. After all, not everyone is given to know how to use this knowledge at its true worth, without prejudice or excessive trust, which is foolish to show in relation to things created. With this in mind, we will not glimpse nothing of what we have discovered in this area, or publish only a small fraction, and therefore I will limit myself to what is said here about Astrology briefly and in general.

I also paid a lot of attention to alchemical research, or chemical experiments. On occasion, I will also touch on this subject in my work, for the substances participating in the transformations have a certain similarity with celestial bodies and the influences exerted by them, for which reason I usually call this science terrestrial astronomy. I have been in Alchemy, as well as in the exploration of the heavens, since I was 23 years old, trying to gather knowledge and process it. At the cost of hard work and considerable expense, I was able to make many discoveries about metals and minerals, precious stones and plants, and the like. I would gladly and openly discuss all these issues with princes and nobles and other famous and learned people who are interested in this subject and are knowledgeable in it and would share information with them if I was sure of their good intentions and ability to keep secrets, for making this kind of information public would be useless and unreasonable - although many people pretend to understand alchemy, not everyone is given to comprehend its secrets in accordance with the requirements of nature, honestly and profitably.

Tycho Brahe (1546-1601) - Danish astronomer of the 17th century. He developed innovative methods and high-precision instruments for tracking the stars, and over the years conducted observations that allowed future generations of scientists to make important scientific discoveries.

Many sometimes grotesque legends and a number of undoubtedly important astronomical discoveries are associated with the name of Tycho Brahe. His main theory about the model of the world turned out to be erroneous in the end, but his many years and meticulous observations of the heavenly bodies became a powerful foundation for the work and significant scientific laws derived by future generations of scientists.

Origin

Tycho Brahe (Latin Tycho Brahe, Dan Tyge Ottesen Brahe) was born on December 14, 1546 in the Knudstrup estate, located in the province of Scania, in the southern part of the Scandinavian Peninsula (the territory of modern Sweden). The future scientist belonged to a noble family, from the 15th century. occupied a prominent position in the Danish kingdom. His father Otto Brahe and mother Bitte Bill had nine more children, and Tycho himself had a twin brother who did not survive after birth.

Tycho spent his childhood in the castle Tostrup, which belonged to his own uncle: the ancient clan custom obliged Otto to give one of his sons to be raised by his childless brother Jergen, vice admiral of the fleet. Jergen Brahe possessed a significant fortune and did not skimp on the education of his adopted son. The boy learned Latin early, studied geometry, arithmetic, astronomy, and music. In 1559 Tycho entered the law faculty of the University of Copenhagen.

First experiences, fame, family

It is believed that Brahe's serious interest in astronomy began in August 1560, when he witnessed a solar eclipse. Allegedly, Tycho was so impressed that people can predict the "behavior" of stars that he decided to devote his whole life to this. However, the adoptive father had other plans for Tycho's career. In 1562 he sent his son to Germany, to the University of Leipzig, to continue his study of legal sciences. In secret from his uncle, Tycho acquired special instruments and was actively engaged in astronomical observations. In particular, in August 1563, he observed how Jupiter and Saturn passed very close to each other (eclipse of Saturn by Jupiter). After checking his calculations with those published earlier, Brahe discovered inaccuracies in Copernicus's calculations.

In 1565, Jergen Brahe died suddenly, and his adopted son inherited all his significant fortune. Thanks to the funds received, Tycho Brahe got the opportunity to thoroughly study his favorite science. He spent the next five years at the universities of Rostock, Wittenberg, Augsburg and Basel. Traveling around Europe, he bought astronomical and mathematical instruments, doing astrology and alchemy in addition to astronomy. In 1566 he was drawn into a duel, as a result of which he lost part of his nose. Since then, Brahe constantly wore a metal prosthesis on the bridge of his nose. In 1571, Brahe's own father dies. Returning to Denmark, the aspiring scientist organizes a well-equipped laboratory in the ancestral castle.

The next year turns out to be eventful. At the beginning of 1572 Tycho Brahe connects his fate with the daughter of the priest Kirsten Jorgansdatter. Eight children will be born from this marriage: two babies will die shortly after birth, and the surviving children will be considered illegitimate; according to Danish law, a nobleman could not marry a woman of low birth.

In November 1572, Brahe discovers a new star in the constellation Cassiopeia, which will later be named after him. Only in the XX century. scientists will prove that this star was the first supernova born in our Galaxy in the next 5 hundred years. For 17 months, Brahe watched as the star slowly lost its brightness until it disappeared from sight completely. The results of this work were presented in the first publication of the scientist, entitled "About a new star ..." and published in 1573. The name of the scientist gained wide popularity. In 1574, at the invitation of the Academic Council of the University of Copenhagen, Brahe gave his students his own course of lectures on the science of astronomy.

Reborn astronomy in Uraniborg

At the beginning of 1575, Brahe made a voyage across Europe, looking for a suitable site for an observatory. In Switzerland, Italy and Germany, he meets with famous astronomers to exchange experiences. He finds favorable climatic conditions for observing the sky in Augsburg, Germany and begins to plan the move. Having learned about the scientist's plans, the Danish ruler Frederick II does not want to let Brahe leave the country, so as not to deprive Denmark of such a "diamond" of science. The king appoints Braga a permanent financial allowance, and gives ownership of the whole island of Ven, which lies in the Øresund Strait.

In 1576-80. according to the personal project of Tycho Brahe, the construction of the Uraniborg Observatory ("Castle of Urania"), named after the muse of astronomy, continued. On the top floor there were 4 observatories, "looking" to 4 cardinal directions and having sliding roofs. For the most part, they were equipped with equipment made here according to Brahe's drawings. The scientist managed to achieve unprecedented accuracy of his instruments, which did not yet have optical devices. The island resembled a mini-state, with a special inner atmosphere and way of life. Over time, there appeared its own printing house, a mechanical workshop, a paper production, and a water mill, which gave energy to the rest of the production. The castle was equipped with an innovative water supply system for those times.

Already in 1577, systematic observations of celestial bodies began in the unfinished observatory. From November 1577 to January 1578 (from the moment of its appearance and until it completely disappeared from sight), Brahe followed the trajectory of a new comet. Careful observations led the scientist to the discovery: the comet is located much further than the moon, which means that it has an extraterrestrial nature. Such calculations made a splash in the world of science; they undermined the credibility of laws derived in ancient times and still believed to be true. It turned out that Aristotle and Galileo were wrong.

For two decades, Brahe made detailed observations of the sky. During this period, he compiled a catalog containing the updated coordinates of about 800 stars, calculated the uneven motion of the moon, and measured the length of the year with almost 100% accuracy. The astronomer was convinced that the Earth is motionless and is the center of the universe, the Sun, Moon and stars move around it, and other planets around the Sun. In 1584, another observatory was built on the island - Stjerneborg (in the translation from Danish - "Star Castle"). In 1588 the essay "On the generally recognized phenomena of the Heavenly World" was published.

In his work, the scientist was assisted by about a dozen assistants and his younger sister Sophia, who has excellent makings of an astronomer. There were frequent guests on the island: scientists, students and high-ranking persons interested in science. In addition to scientific research, Brahe was actively involved in astrology and alchemy. Many noble contemporaries ordered personal horoscopes from him, most of which, according to rumors, turned out to be true. There were other rumors about the scientist: allegedly, a clairvoyant dwarf lives in Uraniborg, predicting the future, sitting under the dining table, and also an elk, which Brahe first tamed and then made a drunkard. However, the astronomer himself was credited with the sin of alcoholism and every connection with magic.

Farewell to the Island of Ven, meeting with Kepler

In 1597, Tycho Brahe with his family and assistants was forced to leave not only Uraniborg, but also Denmark. King Christian IV, who ascended the Danish throne after the death of his father Frederick II, stopped funding the observatory and ordered the scientist to leave the island. During the first two years, Brahe lived in the German cities of Rostock and Wandsbek, in 1598 his book "The Mechanics of Revived Astronomy" was published here, describing in detail the process of creating astronomical instruments invented by the scientist. In 1599 Tycho Brahe received an invitation from Rudolf II and went to Prague, where he assumed the office of court mathematician and astrologer.

In 1600, Brahe took the novice astronomer Johannes Kepler to his assistant, and entrusted him with the processing of data obtained over 16 years of careful observations of the planet Mars. In 1601 they began the development of the Rudolph Tables, named after the emperor, but the project was completed by Kepler alone. Tycho Brahe died suddenly on October 24, 1601. The exact cause of death has not yet been established, despite the fact that in order to determine it, the scientist's tomb was opened twice: in 1901 and 2010. There was a legend that the astronomer had a ruptured bladder: allegedly, according to court etiquette, during the king's dinner, the scientist could not leave the table. However, physiologically, this simply cannot happen.

Conclusion

The entire archive of the great Dane went to his last student. The study of long-term observations made by Brahe allowed Kepler to approach the discovery of the laws of planetary motion, which, by the way, confirmed the correctness of Copernicus's theory. Later, on this foundation, Isaac Newton's theory of gravity was built. An asteroid and a lunar crater were named after Tycho Brahe.

Tycho Brahe's quadrant. Brahe himself is depicted in the center.

Brahe devoted his whole life to observing the sky, with tireless work and ingenuity achieving results that have never been seen anywhere else in the world in terms of accuracy and breadth of coverage. Kepler wrote that Tycho Brahe began "restoring astronomy."

Most of the instruments at the observatory were made by Tycho Brahe himself. To improve the accuracy of measurements, he not only increased the size of the instruments, but also developed new observation methods that minimize measurement errors. Among his technical and methodological improvements:

• The armillary sphere was oriented not towards the ecliptic, as was customary since the time of Ptolemy, but towards the celestial equator. To improve accuracy, Brahe designed a special sight.
• Instead of the Moon, he used Venus as an intermediate reference luminary, which practically did not move during the pause in observations.

After the invention of the telescope, the accuracy of observations increased sharply, but Brahe's improvements in the mechanics of astronomical instruments and methods of processing observations remained valuable for a long time.

Tycho Brahe compiled new, accurate solar tables and measured the length of the year with an error of less than a second. In 1592, he first published a catalog of 777 stars, and by 1598 he brought the number of stars to 1004, replacing the long-obsolete catalogs of Ptolemy that were previously used in Europe. Brahe discovered two new irregularities in the movement of the moon in longitude: the third and fourth. He also discovered a periodic change in the inclination of the lunar orbit to the ecliptic, as well as changes in the position of the lunar nodes. Up to Newton, no corrections were required in Braga's theory of the motion of the moon.

Some of the astronomical instruments of Tycho Brahe:

He increased the accuracy of observations of stars and planets by more than an order of magnitude, and the position of the Sun according to his tables was accurate to one minute, while the previous tables gave an error of 15-20 minutes. For comparison, the Istanbul Observatory, organized simultaneously with Uraniborg and excellently equipped, was never able to improve the accuracy of observations compared to ancient ones.

Tycho Brahe compiled the first tables of the distortions of the visible positions of the luminaries caused by the refraction of light in the Earth's atmosphere. Comparing the current and marked in antiquity, the longitudes of the stars, he determined a fairly accurate meaning of the anticipation of the equinoxes.

The name Tycho Brahe is associated with the observation of a supernova in the constellation Cassiopeia on November 11, 1572, and the first observational conclusion about the extraterrestrial nature of comets, based on the observation of the Big Comet in 1577. In this comet, Tycho Brahe discovered parallax, which excluded the atmospheric nature of the phenomenon. It should be noted that such authorities as Aristotle and Galileo considered comets to be an earthly phenomenon; the theory of the extraterrestrial origin of comets has been debated for a long time and has become firmly established in science only in the era of Descartes.

Moreover, the calculation of the orbit of the aforementioned comet showed that during the observation period it crossed several planetary orbits. This led to an important conclusion: there are no "crystalline spheres" bearing the planets on them. In a letter to Kepler, Brahe states:

In my opinion, the spheres ... should be excluded from heaven. I realized this thanks to the comets that appeared in the sky ... They do not follow the laws of any of the spheres, but rather act in spite of them ... so far many have thought, but fluid and free, open in all directions, which does not pose absolutely any obstacles to the free run of the planets.

For 16 years, Tycho Brahe conducted continuous observations of the planet Mars. The materials of these observations greatly helped his successor, the German scientist I. Kepler, to discover the laws of planetary motion.

Tycho Brahe Peace System

Tycho Brahe Peace System

Brahe did not believe in Copernicus's heliocentric system and called it mathematical speculation. Brahe proposed his compromise geo-heliocentric system of the world, which was a combination of the teachings of Ptolemy and Copernicus: the sun, moon and stars revolve around a stationary earth, and all planets and comets around the sun. Brahe also did not recognize the daily rotation of the Earth. From a purely computational point of view, this model was no different from the Copernican system, but it had one important advantage, especially after the trial of Galileo: it did not raise objections from the Inquisition. Among the few supporters of the Brahe system in the 17th century was the prominent Italian astronomer Riccioli. Direct evidence of the Earth's motion around the Sun appeared only in 1727, but in fact the Brahe system was rejected by most scientists back in the 17th century as unjustifiably and artificially complicated in comparison with the Copernicus-Kepler system.

In his work "De Mundi aeteri" Brahe sets out his position as follows:

I believe that the old Ptolemaic arrangement of the celestial spheres was not elegant enough, and that the assumption of such a large number of epicycles ... should be considered redundant ... At the same time, I believe that the recent innovation of the great Copernicus ... does so without violating mathematical principles. However, the body of the Earth is large, slow and unsuitable for movement ... I am without any doubt of the opinion that the Earth that we inhabit occupies the center of the Universe, which corresponds to the generally accepted opinions of ancient astronomers and natural philosophers, as evidenced above by the Holy Scriptures, and does not revolve in the annual treatment as Copernicus wished.

Brahe himself sincerely believed in the reality of his system and before his death asked Kepler to support it. He explained in detail in letters why he considers the Copernican system to be erroneous. One of the most serious arguments stemmed from his erroneous estimate of the angular diameter of the stars and, as a consequence, the distance to them. The distances calculated by Brahe were several orders of magnitude smaller than the actual ones and should, if we recognize the movement of the Earth around the Sun, cause noticeable displacements of stellar longitudes, which in reality did not happen. From this Brahe concluded that the Earth is motionless. In fact, the apparent diameters of stars were increased by atmospheric refraction, and astronomers were able to detect stellar parallaxes only in the 19th century.

Tige (Tycho - in Latin form) Brahe was an outstanding Danish astronomer and astrologer of the Renaissance.

Origin. Childhood. Adolescent years

On December 14, 1546, two twin boys were born in the family of Otto Brahe and his wife Bitte Bill. One of them died at birth, and the second survived to become in the future the most famous astronomer of his era.

The parents named the boy Tycho, and his father, who, like the boy's mother, belongs to the Danish nobility, pinned great hopes on his firstborn. How else? After all, he was the heir, the eldest son, and therefore it befits him to lead an exclusively aristocratic lifestyle, that is, to devote his time to hunting and wars.

But, fortunately, Tycho had an uncle Jorgen, who was much more educated than his parents, who, being childless, concluded an agreement with Otto that he would take the boy for his upbringing. Jorgen was a squire, moreover, he had the rank of vice admiral, and he could give little Tycho an incomparably better education and a higher standard of living than his parents.



But it so happened that Otto changed his mind. Then Jorgen simply kidnapped the boy, despite the threat of murder from Father Tycho. The father of the future astrologer calmed down and stopped pursuing Jorgen only when his youngest son was born and his uncle wrote off all his fortune and a huge house to Tycho.

At seven, at the insistence of Uncle Jorgen, Tycho began to study Latin, which, according to the educator, should have helped the boy make a brilliant career as a lawyer in the future. Then the boy entered the university, where he became interested in mathematics and music. It was there, at the age of 15, that he changed his name to the Latin manner.

The life-changing eclipse

08/21/1560 thirteen-year-old Tycho was fortunate enough to personally observe a partial solar eclipse. But the young Brahe was struck not by the fact of the eclipse of the star, but by the fact that this event was predicted in advance. He was instantly mesmerized by secret knowledge, with the help of which a person could calculate the movements of the heavenly spheres.

Since he was a rich boy, he was able to immediately acquire books on astronomy for himself, including Ptolemy's "Almagest", as well as a number of astronomical tables. However, his parents did not like his fascination with the movement of planets, so the young Brahe was sent to continue his education in Leipzig, Germany, where, after graduating from the university, he was supposed to become a lawyer.



However, in those days, knowledge was given very superficially, but this was considered sufficient in order to get a profitable place in the service of the state. The young man regularly received money that he had to spend on pleasures: on women and wine. However, Brahe, hiding this from his tutor-tutor and from his parents, did not buy women at all with this money, but astronomical instruments and books, continuing to study astronomy on his own.

It is no wonder that, upon returning to Denmark, the aristocratic community considered Brahe, if not a madman, then a great eccentric.

Observatory

Brahe could not continue to live in Copenhagen. He had no friends or like-minded people in his homeland, so he decided to leave again for Germany, where many of his fellow astronomers lived at that time. There Brahe, with the help of renowned artists, was able to create many new tools for work, and then, when he returned to Denmark, he gave, at the request of the king, several lectures on astronomy.

Then King Frederick II gave the scientist a small island and a maintenance of 500 ecu, on which Brahe opened an astronomical observatory called Uraniburg. Brahe himself invested more than one hundred thousand thalers in equipment.

Brahe's discoveries

Observing the starry sky, the scientist first voiced the idea that comets are not evaporations at all, as Aristotle believed, but completely independent members of the solar system.

• Brahe, thanks to his work at the observatory, published a catalog of 788 stars.
• It was Tycho Brahe who was able to fix the irregularities in the motion of the Moon, and the scientist also more accurately determined the angle of inclination of the Earth's orbit.

Tycho Brahe died in Prague in 1601.

Tycho Brahe was born on December 14, 1546 in the small Danish town of Knudstrup. His real name was Tyuge, and the Latinized version - Tycho was taken later, in adulthood. The boy's parents belonged to an old noble family and, according to the established tradition, handed him over to be raised in the family of his uncle, who was an admiral of the Danish fleet. He approached the matter of teaching his adopted son very responsibly, so Tycho received the best education that was possible at that time. This allowed him, at the age of 12, to enter the University of Copenhagen, where astronomy became the main subject of his studies. After studying for three years, Tycho is transferred to Leipzig University, which, however, he was unable to graduate due to the outbreak of the war. Soon, after returning to Denmark, his adoptive father died, leaving behind a fairly large fortune. This gave Tycho Brahe the opportunity to study astronomy on his own, without the need for outside help.

After a series of adventures, with the assistance of his friend, the Landgrave of Hesse-Kassel, the astronomer receives from the king the island of Ven, located near Copenhagen, for life. Here, with funds allocated by the king, supplemented by his own money, Tycho builds an observatory, which he named Uraniborg.

He worked in it for over 20 years, until, due to lack of funding, he had to move to Prague, accepting the invitation of Emperor Rudolf II. In this city he died on October 24, 1601.
Tycho Brahe was unanimously recognized as the best observing astronomer of the period before the invention of the telescope. The accuracy of the star catalogs compiled by him was very high, and therefore they remained relevant for a long time, even after the appearance of optical instruments. The scientist personally made instruments for his observations, having developed a number of techniques to improve their accuracy. This allowed him to compile new solar tables, as well as determine the length of the year with an error of less than one second. As for the observation of planets and stars, the error in their observation has decreased by more than 15 times in comparison with the previous ones. Tycho Brahe also published the first tables in which the visible distortions of the position of a number of celestial bodies were determined due to the influence of the earth's atmosphere.

One of the most famous studies carried out by the scientist was the observation of a supernova that exploded in the sky on September 11, 1572 in the constellation Cassiopeia. Based on its results, a book was written called "About a new star". In addition, Brahe for the first time made a conclusion about the extraterrestrial origin of comets, which was a revolutionary discovery of the time. The material for him was the observations of the Big Comet in 1577, which that year was clearly visible all over the world.

It was from the results obtained by Tycho Brahe during his scientific career that Johannes Kepler derived his famous laws describing the motion of the planets of the solar system. It is worth noting that, unlike him, the Danish scientist did not accept the heliocentric system of the Copernican world. He proposed his own hypothesis (the so-called geo-heliocentric system), which was recognized as erroneous shortly after his death.

Read also ...

• Moonshine stills - distillers
• How to choose the best moonshine still for home use Moonshine still what to choose
• Kohler color caramel. E150 - Sugar color. Influence on the body
• How is buckwheat cooked in a double boiler?